Reprogrammable non-volatile memory using a breakdown phenomena in an ultra-thin dielectric

Description of equivalent WO 03060917 A2

0001REPROGRAMMABLE NON-VOLATILE MEMORY USING A BREAKDOWN PHENOMENA IN AN ULTRA-THIN DIELECTRIC

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S)

0003The present application hereby claims priority under 35 U.S.C. 120 from U.S. Patent Application Serial No. 09/955,641 filed September 18, 2001 , entitled "SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY CELL AND MEMORY ARRAY USING A BREAKDOWN PHENOMENA IN AN ULTRA-THIN DIELECTRIC".

TECHNICAL FIELD

0005The present invention relates to reprogrammable non-volatile memory, and more particularly, to a non-volatile reprogrammable semiconductor memory that uses a breakdown phenomena in an ultra-thin dielectric such as a MOS gate dielectric to store digital information.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

0007Non-volatile memory retains stored data when power is removed, which is required or at least highly desirable in many different types of computers and other electronic devices. One commonly available type of nonvolatile memory is the programmable read-only memory ("PROM"), which uses word line - bit line crosspoint elements such as fuses, anti-fuses, and trapped charge devices such as the floating gate avalanche injection metal oxide semiconductor ("FAMOS") transistor to store logical information. PROM typically is not reprogrammable.

0008An example of one type of PROM cell that uses the breakdown of a silicon dioxide layer in a capacitor to store digital data is disclosed in United States Patent No. 6,215,140, issued April 10, 2001 to Reisinger et al. The basic PROM disclosed by Reisinger et al. uses a series combination of an oxide capacitor and a junction diode as the crosspoint element. An intact capacitor represents the logic value 0, and an electrically broken-down capacitor represents the logic value 1. The thickness of the silicon dioxide layer is adjusted to obtain the desired operation specifications. Silicon dioxide has a breakdown charge of about 10 C/cm² (Coulomb/cm²). If a voltage of 10 volts is appiieσ to a capacitor αieiectπc witn a thickness of 10 nm (resultant field strength 10 mV/cm), a current of about 1 mA/cm² flows. With 10 volts, this thus results in a substantial amount of time for programming a memory cell. However, it is more advantageous to design the capacitor dielectric to be thinner, in order to reduce the high power loss which occurs during electrical breakdown. For example, a memory cell configuration having a capacitor dielectric with a thickness of 3 to 4 nm can be operated at about 1.5 V. The capacitor dielectric does not yet break down at this voltage, so that 1.5 V is sufficient to read data from the memory cell. Data are stored, for example, at 5 V, in which case one cell strand in a memory cell configuration can be programmed within about 1 ms. The energy loss which occurs in this case per cm² of capacitor dielectric is then about 50 Watts (10 Coulomb * 5 V). If the desired power loss is about 0.5 W, about 100 s are required to program a 1 Gigabit memory. If the permissible power losses are higher, the programming can be carried out correspondingly more quickly.

0009Some types of non-volatile memory are capable of being repeatedly programmed and erased, including erasable programmable read only semiconductor memory generally known as EPROM, and electrically erasable programmable read only semiconductor memory generally known as EEPROM. EPROM memory is erased by application of ultraviolet light and programmed by application of various voltages, while EEPROM memory is both erased and programmed by application of various voltages. EPROMs and EEPROMs have suitable structures, generally known as floating gates, that are charged or discharged in accordance with data to be stored thereon. The charge on the floating gate establishes the threshold voltage, or V_τ, of the device, which is sensed when the memory is read to determine the data stored therein. Typically, efforts are made to minimize gate oxide stress in these types of memory cells.

0010A device known as a metal nitride oxide silicon ("MNOS") device has a channel located in silicon between a source and drain and overlain by a gate structure that includes a silicon dioxide layer, a silicon nitride layer, and an aluminum layer. The MNOS device is switchable between two threshold voltage states VτH(high) and V_TH(iow) by applying suitable voltage pulses to the gate, which causes electrons to be trapped in the oxide-nitride gate (V_TH(_hig_h)) or driven out of the oxide-nitride gate ( THOWO). Typically, efforts are"maαe to nmπππizergatβ αxiαe stress in these types of memory cells.

0011A junction breakdown memory cell that uses a stored charge on the gate of a gate controlled diode to store logic 0 and 1 values is disclosed in United States Patent No. 4,037,243, issued July 19, 1977 to Hoffman et al. Charge is stored on the gate by using a capacitance formed between the p-type electrode of the gate- controlled diode and the gate electrode. Charge storage is enhanced by using a composite dielectric in the capacitor formed from silicon dioxide and silicon nitride layers in place of silicon dioxide. The application of an erase voltage to the electrode of the gate controlled diode causes the oxide-nitride interface surface to fill with negative charge, which is retained after the erase operation is completed. This negative interface charge causes the gate-controlled diode to operate in an induced junction mode even after the erase voltage is removed. When the gate- controlled diode is thereafter read, it exhibits field-induced junction breakdown of its channel and saturation current flows. The field induced junction breakdown voltage is less than metalurgalical junction breakdown voltage. However, the application of a write voltage to the electrode of the gate controlled diode causes the silicon dioxide/silicon nitride interface to fill with positive charge, which is retained after the write operation is completed. When the gate controlled diode is thereafter read, it will not break down because no channel exists. Only a slight current flows. The different current flows are sensed and indicate different logic states.

0012Improvements in the various processes used for fabricating the various types of nonvolatile memory tend to lag improvements in widely used processes such as the advanced CMOS logic process. For example, processes for devices such as Flash EEPROM devices tend to use 30% more mask steps than the standard advanced CMOS logic process to produce the various special regions and structures required for the high voltage generation circuits, the triple well, the floating gate, the ONO layers, and the special source and drain junctions typically found in such devices. Accordingly, processes for Flash devices tend to be one or two generations behind the standard advance CMOS logic process and about 30% more expensive on a cost-per-wafer basis. As another example, processes for antifuses must be suitable for fabricating various antifuse structures and high voltage circuits, and so also tend to be about o'n6"gόn^'e tιO'h""b'Shιnd ^" tfie" ^'standard advanced CMOS process.

0013Generally, great care is taken in the fabrication of the silicon dioxide layer used in metal-oxide-silicon (MOS) devices such as capacitors and transistors. The high degree of care is necessary to ensure that the silicon dioxide layer is not stressed during manufacture or subsequent normal operation of the integrated circuit, so that the desired device characteristics are attained and are stable over time. One example of how much care is taken during fabrication is disclosed in United States Patent No. 5,241,200, issued August 31 , 1993 to Kuroda. Kuroda discloses the use of a diffused layer and a shunt to discharge charges accumulated in the word line during a wafer fabrication process. Avoiding this charge accumulation ensures that a large electric field is not applied to the gate insulating film, so that variations in the characteristics of transistors using the word line as their gate wiring line and degradation and breakdown of the gate insulating film are prevented. An example of how much care is taken in circuit design to avoid stressing the silicon dioxide layer of a transistor during normal circuit operation is disclosed in United States Patent No. 6,249,472, issued June 19, 2001 to Tamura et al. Tamura et al. disclose an antifuse circuit having an antifuse in series with a p- channel MOS transistor in one embodiment and in series with an n-channel MOS transistor in another embodiment. While the antifuse is fabricated without the additional film manufacturing processes typically required for fabricating antifuse circuits, Tamura et al. encounter another problem. When the antifuse is shorted out, the series-connected transistor is exposed to a high voltage sufficient to break down the silicon dioxide layer of the transistor. Tamura et al. disclose the addition of another transistor to the circuit to avoid exposing the first transistor to the break down potential.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

0015Figure 1 is a schematic circuit diagram of a portion of a memory array in accordance with the present invention.

0016Figure 2 is a partial layout diagram of a portion of the memory array represented by Figure 1. Figure 3 is a cross-section diagram of an ιntegrateα""cιrcuιt structure "for the portion of the memory array corresponding to Figure 2.

0017Figure 4 is a cross-section diagram of a variation of the integrated circuit structure of Figure 3.

0018Figure 5 is a schematic circuit diagram of a portion of another type of memory array in accordance with the present invention.

0019Figure 6 is a partial layout diagram of a portion of the memory array represented by Figure 5.

0020Figure 7 is a cross-section diagram of an integrated circuit structure for the portion of the memory array corresponding to Figure 6.

0021Figure 8 is a table of voltages.

0022Figure 9 is a table of voltages.

0023Figure 10 is a table of voltages.

0024Figure 11 is a cross-section diagram of an experimental setup.

0025Figure 12 is a graph showing the effect of a constant voltage stress on an ultra-thin gate oxide

0026Figure 13 is a graph showing various stages in the current-voltage characteristics of an ultra-thin gate oxide as degradation proceeds.

0027Figure 14 is a graph showing time-to-breakdown at 63% distribution vs. gate voltage in a semi-log scale measured on n-channel field effect transistors (inversion) for various oxide thickness.

0028Figure 15 is a graph showing the current-voltage characteristics of t? type devices measured after the detection of successive breakdown events.

0029Figure 16 is a block schematic diagram of a semiconductor memory.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

0031The present invention is a reprogrammable non-volatile memory cell and memory array. The non-volatile memory is comprised of semiconductor memory cells having a data storage element constructed around an ultra-thin dielectric, such as a gate oxide, used to store information by stressing the ultra-thin dielectric into breakdown (soft or hard breakdown) to set the leakage current level of the memory cell. The memory cell is read by sensing the current drawn by the cell. A suitable ultra-thin dielectric is, for example, high quality gate oxide of about 50 A thickness or less, as is commonly available from presently <img file="WO03060917A2_D0001.tif" /> ""Sέfv§'hced^'" CMOS ^"logic processes, for example. Such oxides are commonly formed by deposition, by oxide growth from a silicon active region, or by some combination thereof. Other suitable dielectrics include oxide-nitride-oxide composites, compound oxides, and so forth.

0032The memory cells are reprogrammable by increasing the magnitude of dielectric breakdown from a "soft" breakdown to a "hard" breakdown as the memory cells are reprogrammed. Importantly, as the magnitude of the breakdown increases, the amount of sensed leakage current increases. Using this phenomena, the memory cell can be reprogrammed, albeit a finite number of times.

0033In the following description, numerous specific details are provided to provide a thorough understanding of embodiments of the invention. One skilled in the relevant art will recognize, however, that the invention can be practiced without one or more of the specific details, or with other methods, components, materials, etc. In other instances, well-known structures, materials, or operations are not shown or described in detail to avoid obscuring aspects of the invention.

0034Reference throughout this specification to "one embodiment" or "an embodiment" means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the present invention. Thus, the appearances of the phrases "in one embodiment" or "in an embodiment" in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments.

0035Initially, a detailed description of the memory cells and memory array incorporated into the smart card is disclosed. Then, a description of a smart card that incorporates the memory cells and memory array is disclosed.

0036An example of an arbitrary 4 by 4 portion of a memory array 100 that includes several such memory cells is shown in the schematic diagram of FIGURE 1. FIGURE 1 shows 16 memory cells, each of which includes a MOS transistor and a MOS half-transistor. The memory cell at, for example, the crosspoint of the first row Ri and the first column C-- includes an n-channel MOS transistor 115 having its gate connected to the row line R-*, its source connected to a source line S-i, and its drain connected to one terminal of a MOS half-transistor 111. The MOS transistor 115 is also referred to nerem as a" select transistor ano is used to "select" a particular memory cell for programming or reading. As will be seen below, during the programming step, a large voltage is applied to the select transistor and MOS half-transistor 111 to break down the gate oxide of the MOS half-transistor 111. However, it is undesirable to break down the gate oxide of the select transistor. Therefore, the gate oxide of the select transistor may be made, in some alternative embodiments, to have a thicker gate oxide than that of the MOS half-transistor 111. Additionally or in the alternative, the select transistor may be replaced by an I/O device that is more resistant to break down.

0037The gate of the MOS half-transistor 111 is connected to the column line Cι. The other memory cells shown in FIGURE 1 are formed from half-transistor- transistor pairs 112 and 116, 113 and 117, 114 and 118, 125 and 121 , 126 and 122, 127 and 123, 128 and 124, 131 and 135, 132 and 136, 133 and 137, 134 and 138, 145 and 141 , 146 and 142, 147and 143, and 148 and 144.

0038A MOS half-transistor functions as follows. During programming or read, a positive voltage (for a p-type active region) is applied to the gate, which is one terminal of the capacitor. The gate acts as one plate of the capacitor and also causes an t?-type inversion layer to form under the gate. The inversion layer acts as the other plate of the capacitor, and together with the source/drain region forms the second terminal of the capacitor.

0039The use of half-transistor type data storage elements in the array 100 of FIGURE 1 is advantageous because the half-transistors can be fabricated using many conventional MOS and CMOS processes without adding any mask steps to them. However, other types of ultra-thin dielectric data storage elements may be used if desired. For example, a capacitor type data storage element advantageously may be programmed in either direction and has less resistance when the ultra-thin dielectric is stressed, but may require an additional masking step in some processes. Half-transistor type data storage elements are shown in cross- section in FIGURE 3, while capacitor type data storage elements are shown in cross-section in FIGURE 4.

0040Although only a 4 by 4 portion of the memory array 100 is shown, in practice such memory arrays contain on the order of about one gigabit of memory cells when fabricated using, for example, an advanced 0.13 μm CMOS logic process, and even larger memories will be realized as IVIUO logic processes improve Tanner. The memory 100 in practice is organized into bytes and pages and redundant rows (not shown), which may be done in any desired manner. Many suitable memory organizations are well known in the art.

0041FIGURE 2 shows a partial layout diagram 200 for a portion of the memory array 100, and FIGURE 3 presents a cross-section of an illustrative MOS integrated circuit 300 showing the principal structure aspects thereof corresponding to the paired memory cells formed by transistor-half transistor pairs 115 and 111 and 121 and 125 in accordance with the layout diagram of FIGURE 2. The layout diagram of FIGURE 2 is suitable for an advanced CMOS logic process, for example. The term "MOS" literally means metal-oxide-silicon. Although the letter "M" stands for a "metal" gate structure and the letter "O" stands for oxide, the term MOS is commonly understood to pertain to any gate material, including doped polysilicon and other good conductors, as well as to various different types of gate dielectrics not limited to silicon dioxide, and the term is so used herein. For example, the dielectric may be any type of dielectric, such as an oxide or nitride, which undergoes a hard or soft breakdown upon the application of a voltage for a period of time. In one embodiment, a thermally grown gate silicon oxide of about 50 angstroms thick is used.

0042The memory array 100 preferably is laid out in a grid in which the column lines such as Ci and C₂ are orthogonal to the row lines such as R-,, R₂, R₃ and R as well as the diffused source lines. An active region mask, containing pattern 213 (FIGURE 2), is used to form oxide isolation structures, which include oxide trenches 302 and 314 (FIGURE 3), and to define the active regions such as 313 (FIGURE 3), which will contain the various transistors, half-transistors, and diffused source lines of the memory array. The MOS half-transistor 111 and the MOS transistor 115 at the crosspoint of the row line Ri and the column line Ci and the MOS half-transistor 125 and the MOS transistor 121 at the crosspoint of the row line R₂ and the column line Ci are formed in the p well active region 313 in the following manner.

0043An ultra-thin gate oxide layer 312 is formed followed by a deposition and doping of polysilicon, which is patterned using a gate mask containing patterns such as 211 , 214, 221 and 224 for the gates 311 and 301 of half-transistor 111 , 125 (as well as the gates (not shown) of half-transistors 112 and 126 and other half- transistors), and patterns such as R, and R₂ torthBTό line's" Ri -and "R₂; ^" which also serve as gates for the select transistors 115, 121 , 116 and 122 (as well as other select transistors). The various source and drain regions are formed by negative lightly doped drain ("NLDD") process steps (implants, spacers, and n+ source/drain implants), creating the n+ regions 306, 308 and 310. The region 308 is also part of a diffused source line. A contact mask including patterns 210, 215, 220 and 225 (FIGURE 2) is used to form contact vias to the gates 301 and 311 (FIGURE 3) and other gates (not shown). A metal mask includes dashed patterns labeled Ci and C₂ (FIGURE 2) for forming column lines such as Ci and C₂, which are orthogonal to the polysilicon row lines such as R-*, R₂, R₃ and R as well as the diffused source lines. The other transistor-half transistor pairs in the memory 100 are simultaneously formed in an identical manner.

0044FIGURE 4 shows a cross-section of an illustrative MOS integrated circuit 400 showing the principal structural aspects thereof. The cross-section 400 is similar to the cross section 300 of FIGURE 3 except that the half transistors 125 and 111 of FIGURE 3 are replaced by another type of ultra-thin dielectric data storage element, namely capacitors 425 and 411. The capacitor 411 at the crosspoint of the row line R*ι and the column line Ci is formed from the polysilicon gate 311 , which is contacted by a metal contact defined by pattern 210, and which overlies the gate oxide 312 and a deeply diffused n+ region 410. Similarly, the MOS capacitor 425 at the crosspoint of the row line R₂ and the column line Ci is formed from the polysilicon gate 301 , which is contacted by a metal contact defined by the pattern 215, and which overlies the gate oxide 312 and a deeply diffused n+ region 406.

0045The n+ regions 406 and 410 allow the capacitors 425 and 411 to have very low resistance conductive states relative to the half-transistor 125 and 111 of FIGURE 3, which rely on the setting up of an inversion layer to conduct current. Another advantage of the capacitors 425 and 411 is that they can be programmed by flowing current in either direction. A disadvantage of the capacitors 406 and 410 is that they generally require the modification of commercially available processes by the addition of a mask step and/or implantation steps. For example, suitable techniques for forming the n+ regions 406 and 410 include the use of buried n+ implants prior to the gate polysilicon deposition, or by side implant diffusion after the polysilicon deposition and etch. While the n+ regions 406 and 410 are shown to be more deeply diffused than the doped regions "306 ana '^τu" ιtn^' wπi'Clf'th^'e "' "are integrated, the depth of the diffusion may be varied as desired.

0046A variation of the memory array 100 is the memory array 500 shown in FIGURE 5, which shows an arbitrary 4 by 4 portion of a larger memory array of memory cells, each of which includes a MOS transistor and a MOS half-transistor. The memory cell at, for example, the crosspoint of the first row R-i and the first column Ci includes a t?-channel MOS transistor 515 having its gate connected to the row line R-i, its drain connected to the first column C-i, and its source connected to one terminal of a MOS half-transistor 511. The gate terminal of the MOS half- transistor 511 is connected to a source line S-i. The other memory cells shown in FIGURE 1 are formed from similar half transistor-transistor pairs 512 and 516, 513 and 517, 514 and 518, 521 and 525, 522 and 526, 523 and 527, 524 and 528, 531 and 535, 532 and 536, 533 and 537, 534 and 538, 541 and 545, 542 and 546, 543 and 547, and 544 and 548.

0047As in the case of the memory array of FIGURE 1 , MOS capacitors may be used instead of MOS half-transistors in the memory array of FIGURE 5.

0048FIGURE 6 shows a partial layout diagram 600 for a portion of the memory array 500, and FIGURE 7 presents a cross-section of an illustrative MOS integrated circuit 700 showing the principal structure aspects thereof corresponding to the paired memory cells formed by transistor-half transistor pairs 515 and 511 , and 525 and 521 in accordance with the layout diagram of FIGURE 5. The layout diagram of FIGURE 6 is suitable for an advanced CMOS logic process, for example. The memory array 500 preferably is laid out in a grid in which the column lines such as Ci and C₂ are orthogonal to the row lines such as R₁₍ R₂, R₃ and R as well as source lines such as S-*. An n+ diffusion and active region mask containing patterns 612, 614, 622 and 624 (FIGURE 6) is used to form oxide isolation structures, which include oxide trench 704 (FIGURE 7), and to define the active regions such as 710 (FIGURE 7), which will contain the various transistors and half-transistors of the memory array. The MOS half-transistor 511 and the MOS transistor 515 at the crosspoint of the row line R-* and the column line Ci and the MOS half-transistor 521 and the MOS transistor 525 at the crosspoint of the row line R₂ and the column line Ci are formed in the p well active region 710 in the following manner. An ultra-thin gate oxide layer 702 is formed followed by a deposition and doping of polysilicon, which is patterned using a gate mask contaιnιng''^,patterns ^{' '}sύ^"ch^{" '}as ^"R₁,^'' Si and R₂ which serve as gates for the select transistors 515, 525, 516 and 526 and for the half-transistors 511 , 521 , 512 and 522. The various source and drain regions are formed by negative lightly doped drain ("NLDD") process steps (implants, spacers, and n+ source/drain implants), creating the n+ regions 712, 714, 716 and 718 (FIGURE 7). A contact mask including patterns 610, 616, 620 and 626 (FIGURE 6) is used to form contact vias to the drains 712 and 718 (FIGURE 7) as well as to other drains (not shown). A metal mask includes dashed patterns labeled Ci and C₂ (FIGURE 6) for forming column lines such as Ci and C₂, which are orthogonal to the polysilicon row lines such as R--, R₂, R₃ and R₄ as well as the polysilicon source lines such as Si. The other transistor-half transistor pairs in the memory 500 are simultaneously formed in an identical manner.

0049The operation of the memory array 100 is now explained with reference to the illustrative voltages shown in FIGURE 8. It will be appreciated that the voltages are illustrative, and that different voltages are likely to be used in different applications or when different process technologies are used. During programming, the various memory cells in the memory array 100 are exposed to one of four possible voltage combinations, which are shown on lines 801 , 802, 803 and 804 of FIGURE 8. Read voltages are shown on lines 805, 806, 807 and 808.

0050Assume that the selected row and column ("SR/SC") is R-, and C*ι, which is intended to program the memory cell formed by transistor 115 and half-transistor 111. As shown on line 801 , the voltage on the row line R^ is 2.5 volts and the voltage on the source line Si is 0 volts, which is sufficient to turn on the transistor 115 and bring the drain of transistor 115 to zero volts. The voltage on the column line Ci is 7.0 volts, which causes a potential difference of 7 volts across the half- transistor 111. The gate oxide 212 in the half-transistor 111 is designed to break down at this potential difference, which programs the memory cell. When the half- transistor 111 breaks down, the resulting conductive path has sufficient resistivity to prevent the gate oxide 212 of the transistor 115 from becoming degraded or breaking down. As one example, in some devices, the channel resistance of the transistor 115 is on the order of about 10 KΩ while the resistance of the broken down oxide is on the order of greater than about 100 KΩ. With Ri and C-i being the selected row and ^'coiumn, consider trie impact on the memory cell formed by transistor 116 and half-transistor 112, which is at the crosspoint of a selected row and unselected column ("SR/UC"). As shown on line 802, the voltage on the row line R₁ is 2.5 volts and the voltage on the source line S-i is 0 volts, which is sufficient to turn on the transistor 116 and bring the drain of transistor 115 to zero volts. However, the voltage on the column line C₂ is 0 volts, which causes a potential difference of 0 volts across the half-transistor 112. The memory cell does not program.

0051With Ri and Ci being the selected row and column, consider the impact on the memory cell formed by transistor 121 and half-transistor 125, which is at the crosspoint of an unselected row and a selected column ("UR/SC"). As shown on line 803, the voltage on the row line R₂ is 0 volts and the voltage on the source line Si is 0 volts, so that the transistor 121 does not turn on and the node between the drain of the transistor 121 and the half-transistor 125 floats. The voltage on the column line Ci is 7.0 volts, which causes a potential difference of less than about 4 volts across the half-transistor 125. The memory cell does not program, and the potential difference of less than about 4 volts without any current flow is not sufficient to damage or degrade the gate oxide in either the half-transistor 125 or the transistor 121.

0052With Ri and Ci being the selected row and column, consider the impact on the memory cell formed by transistor 122 and half-transistor 126, which is at the crosspoint of an unselected row and an unselected column ("UR/UC"). As shown on line 804, the voltage on the row line R₂ is 0 volts and the voltage on the source line Si is 0 volts, so that the transistor 122 does not turn on. The voltage on the column line C₂ also is 0 volts, so that no potential difference develops across the half- transistor 126. The memory cell does not program.

0053The memory array 100 is read in the following manner. A read select voltage of 2.5 volts is placed on the selected row ("SR") and a read column select voltage of 1.5 volts is placed on the selected column ("SC"). All other rows, which are unselected rows ("UR"), and all other columns, which are unselected columns ("UC"), are set at 0 volts. Assume that Ri and Ci are the selected row and column ("SR/SC") and that the memory cell formed by the transistor 115 and the half- transistor 111 is programmed. As shown on line 805, 2.5 volts (a read select voltage) are applied via row line R-, to the gate of the" transistor" T 5 atid ONόlt'δ 'are applied to the source via the source line S-i, causing current to be drawn from the column line Ci, which is at 1.5 volts, to indicate that the memory cell is programmed. If the memory cell is not programmed, no current would flow to indicate that the memory cell is not programmed.

0054No current is drawn by memory cells at crosspoints having either an unselected row or an unselected column. As shown on line 806 for the case of a selected row line and an unselected column line, 2.5 volts are applied to the gate of the transistor in the memory cell, but as 0 volts are present on the column line, no current flows. As shown on line 807 for the case of an unselected row line and a selected column line, 0 volts are applied to the gate of the transistor in the memory cell. Although 1.5 volts are present on the column line, no current flows because the transistor remains off. As shown on line 808 for the case of an unselected row line and an unselected column line, 0 volts are applied to the gate of the transistor in the memory cell and 0 volts are present on the column line, so no current flows.

0055The operation of the memory array 500 is now explained with reference to the voltages shown in FIGS. 9 and 10. These voltages are illustrative, and different voltages are likely to be used in different applications or when different process technologies are used. It will also be appreciated that while the voltages listed in the tables of FIGS. 8, 9 and 10 are different, the principle behind the various voltages is the same and is suggestive of the breadth of useful voltages.

0056Consider first the illustrative programming voltages listed in the table of FIGURE 9. These voltages are appropriate where the half-transistor contains an ultra-thin gate oxide but the select transistors are input/output type devices having a gate oxide thickness greater than 50A. During programming, the various memory cells in the memory array 500 are exposed to one of four possible voltage combinations, which are shown on lines 901 , 902, 903 and 904 of FIGURE 9. Common to all voltage combinations is the value of the source line Si voltage, which is 0 volts.

0057Assume that the selected row and column ("SR/SC") is R_T and d, which is intended to program the memory cell formed by transistor 515 and half-transistor 511. As shown on line 901 , the voltage on the row line R-, is 7.0 volts and the voltage on the column line Ci is 7.0 volts, which places 7.0 volts on the gate and drain and is sufficient to turn on the transistor 5 5r The "s'd lrfcfe"'of traϊisisfof 51"5 is brought to 7.0 volts less a slight voltage drop across the transistor 515, which causes a potential difference of 6.6 volts across the half-transistor 511. The gate oxide 712 in the half-transistor 511 is designed to break down at this potential difference, which programs the memory cell. When the half-transistor 511 breaks down, the resulting conductive path has sufficient resistivity to prevent the gate oxide 712 of the transistor 515 from becoming degraded or breaking down.

0058With R-i and Ci being the selected row and column, consider the impact on the memory cell formed by transistor 516 and half-transistor 512, which is at the crosspoint of a selected row and an unselected column ("SR/UC"). As shown on line 902, the voltage on the row line Ri is 7.0 volts and the voltage on the column line C-i is 0 volts, which places 7.0 volts on the gate and is sufficient to turn on the transistor 516 and bring the source of transistor 516 to about the voltage on the column line C₂, which is zero volts. Since the potential difference across the half- transistor 512 is about 0 volts, the memory cell does not program.

0059With R-i and Ci being the selected row and column, consider the impact on the memory cell formed by transistor 525 and half-transistor 521 , which is at the crosspoint of an unselected row and a selected column ("UR/SC"). As shown on line 903, the voltage on the row line R₂ is 0 volts and the voltage on the column line C-i is 7.0 volts, which places 0 volts on the gate and 7.0 volts on the drain. The transistor 525 does not turn on, although the 7.0 voltage difference between the potential on the drain and the potential on the source line Si approximately divides between the transistor 525 and the half-transistor 125 and causes less than 4 volts to appear across the oxide of the half-transistor 521. The memory cell does not program, and the potential difference of less than about 4 volts without any current flow is not sufficient to damage or degrade the gate oxide in either the half-transistor 521 or the transistor 525.

0060With R-i and C-i being the selected row and column, consider the impact on the memory cell formed by transistor 526 and half-transistor 522, which is at the crosspoint of an unselected row and an unselected column ("UR/UC"). As shown on line 904, the voltage on the row line R₂ is 0 volts and the voltage on the drain line C₂ is 0 volts, so that the transistor 526 does not turn on. The voltage on the source line s-i also is u volts, so that no potential difference αeveιops"acrosS"the" aff-fra(^'nsτstor 522. The memory cell does not program.

0061Consider next the illustrative programming voltages listed in the table of FIGURE 10. These voltages are appropriate where both the half-transistors and the select transistors contain an ultra-thin gate oxide. During programming, the various memory cells in the memory array 500 are exposed to one of four possible voltage combinations, which are shown on lines 1001 , 1002, 1003 and 1004 of FIGURE 10. Common to all voltage combinations is the value of the source line S-i voltage, which is minus 4.5 volts.

0062Assume that the selected row and column ("SR/SC") is R-i and C-i, which is intended to program the memory cell formed by transistor 515 and half-transistor 511. As shown on line 1001 , the voltage on the row line Ri is 2.5 volts and the voltage on the column line Ci is 2.5 volts, which places 2.5 volts on the gate and drain and is sufficient to turn on the transistor 515. The source of transistor 515 is brought to 2.5 volts less a slight voltage drop across the transistor 515, which causes a potential difference of 6.6 volts across the half-transistor 511. The gate oxide 712 in the half-transistor 511 is designed to break down at this potential difference, which programs the memory cell. When the half-transistor 511 breaks down, the resulting conductive path has sufficient resistivity to prevent the gate oxide 712 of the transistor 515 from becoming degraded or breaking down.

0063With R-i and C-i being the selected row and column, consider the impact on the memory cell formed by transistor 516 and half-transistor 512, which is at the crosspoint of a selected row and an unselected column ("SR/UC"). As shown on line 1002, the voltage on the row line R-i is 2.5 volts and the voltage on the column line C-i is 0 volts, which places 2.5 volts on the gate and is sufficient to turn on the transistor 516 and bring the source of transistor 516 to about the voltage on the column line C₂, which is zero volts. Since the potential difference across the half- transistor 512 is about 4.0 volts, the memory cell does not program.

0064With R-i and C-i being the selected row and column, consider the impact on the memory cell formed by transistor 525 and half-transistor 521 , which is at the crosspoint of an unselected row and a selected column ("UR/SC"). As shown on line 1003, the voltage on the row line R₂ is 0 volts and the voltage on the column line C-i is 2.5 volts, which places 0 volts on the gate and 2.5 volts on the drain. The transistor 525 does not turn on, althougn tne tr.tr voιt"d'ifr6rence""betWό^'en""the potential on the drain and the potential on the source line S-i approximately divides between the transistor 525 and the half-transistor 125 and causes less than about 4 volts to appear across the oxide of the half-transistor 521. The memory cell does not program, and the potential difference of less than about 4 volts without any current flow is not sufficient to damage or degrade the gate oxide in either the half- transistor 521 or the transistor 525.

0065With R-i and d being the selected row and column, consider the impact on the memory cell formed by transistor 526 and half-transistor 522, which is at the crosspoint of an unselected row and an unselected column ("UR/UC"). As shown on line 904, the voltage on the row line R₂ is 0 volts and the voltage on the drain line C₂ is 0 volts, so that the transistor 526 does not turn on. Since the voltage on the source line S-i is minus 4.5 20 volts, the potential difference that develop across the half-transistor 522 is less than about 4 volts: The memory cell does not program, and the potential difference of less than about 4 volts without any current flow is not sufficient to damage or degrade the gate oxide in either the half-transistor 522 or the transistor 526.

0066Regardless of whether the programming voltages of the table of FIGURE 9 or the table of FIGURE 10 are used, the memory array 500 is read in the following manner. A read select voltage of 2.5 volts is placed on the selected row ("SR") and a read column select voltage of 1.5 volts is placed on the selected column ("SC"). All other rows, which are unselected rows ("UR"), and all other columns, which are unselected columns ("UC"), are set at 0 volts. Assume that Ri and d are the selected row and column ("SR/SC") and that the memory cell formed by the transistor 515 and the half-transistor 511 is programmed. As shown on lines 905 and 1005, 2.5 volts (a read select voltage) are applied via row line R-i to the gate of the transistor 515 and 1.5 volts are applied to the drain via the column line d, causing current to be drawn from the column line d to indicate that the memory cell is programmed. If the memory cell is not programmed, no current would flow to indicate that the memory cell is not programmed.

0067No current is drawn by memory cells at crosspoints having either an unselected row or an unselected column. As shown on lines 906 and 1006 for the case of a selected row line and an unselected column line, 2.5 volts are applied to the gate of the transistor in the memory ceil, "our as u voits are present on tne column line, no current flows. As shown on lines 907 and 1007 for the case of an unselected row line and a selected column line, 0 volts are applied to the gate of the transistor in the memory cell. Although 1.5 volts are present on the column line, no current flows because the transistor remains off. As shown on lines 908 and 1008 for the case of an unselected row line and an unselected column line, 0 volts are applied to the gate of the transistor in the memory cell and 0 volts are present on the column line, so no current flows.

0068Various studies of oxide breakdown, which were performed in contexts different than the memory cells shown in the arrays 100 (FIGURE 1 ) and 500 (FIGURE 5), indicate suitable voltage levels for breaking down ultra-thin gate oxides and establishing that the breakdown is controllable. When an ultra-thin gate oxide is exposed to voltage-induced stress, breakdown in the gate oxide occurs. Although the actual mechanisms leading to the intrinsic breakdown of gate oxide are not well understood, the breakdown process is a progressive process passing through a soft breakdown ("SBD") stage followed by a hard breakdown ("HBD") stage. One cause of breakdown is believed to be oxide defect sites. These may act alone to cause breakdown, or may trap charges and thereby cause high local fields and currents and a positive feedback condition that leads to thermal runaway. Improved fabrication processes resulting in fewer oxide defects are reducing the occurrence of this type of breakdown. Another cause of breakdown is believed to be electron and hole trapping at various sites even in defect-free oxide, which also leads to thermal runaway.

0069Rasras et al. performed a carrier separation experiment which demonstrated that, under positive gate bias, impact ionization of the electrons in the substrate is the dominant source of the substrate hole current. Mahmoud Rasras, Ingrid De Wolf, Guido Groeseneken, Robin Degraeve, Herman e. Maes, Substrate Hole Current Origin after Oxide Breakdown, IEDM 00-537, 2000. A constant voltage stress experiment was performed on ultra-thin oxide in an arrangement in which channel inversion was involved, and established that both SBD and HBD may be used for storing data, and that a desired degree of SBD or HBD may be obtained by controlling the time over which the gate oxide storage element is stressed. FIGURE 11 shows a schematic cross-sectional representation of the experimental setup. The effect of the constant voltage stress on tne uirra-tnin gate oxide [^'S^' sliδ'wh in the graph of FIGURE 12, in which the x-axis is time in seconds and the y-axis is current in amperes expressed logarithmically. FIGURE 12 shows the gate and substrate hole current measured before and after soft and hard breakdown under constant voltage stress. For roughly 12.5 seconds, the total current is substantially constant and dominated by an electron current as measured by l_g. The leakage is believed to be due to Fowler-Nordheim ("FN") tunneling and stress-induced leakage current ("SILC"). At about 12.5 seconds, a large jump in the measured substrate hole current is observed, which signals the onset of a soft breakdown ("SBD"). The total current remains substantially constant at this new level, albeit with some fluctuation in the substrate current, from about 12.5 seconds to about 19 seconds. At about 19 seconds, large jumps in both the electron current and the substrate hole current signal the onset of hard breakdown ("HBD"). FIGURE 10 shows that a desired degree of SBD or HBD may be obtained by controlling the time over which the gate oxide storage element is stressed.

0070Sune et al. studied post SBD conduction in ultra-thin silicon dioxide films. Jordi Sune, Enrique Miranda, Post Soft Breakdown conduction in SiO₂ Gate Oxides, IEDM 00-533, 2000. Various stages in the current-voltage ("l-V") characteristics of an ultra-thin gate oxide as degradation proceeds are shown in FIGURE 13, in which the x-axis is voltage in volts and the y-axis is current in amperes expressed logarithmically. FIGURE 13 shows that a broad range of voltages may be used to program the gate oxide storage element, and that either SBD or HBD may be used to store information in the gate oxide storage element. Several post breakdown l-V characteristics are also included that show the evolution from SBD to HBD. The amount of the leakage current resulting at SBD and HBD as well as at the intermediate situations between these two extremes is roughly linearly dependent on the magnitude of the voltage in a range of about 2.5 volts to 6 volts.

0071Wu et al. studied the voltage dependency of voltage acceleration for ultra- thin oxides. E.Y. Wu et al., Voltage-Dependent Voltage-Acceleration of Oxide Breakdown for Ultra-Thin Oxides, IEDM 00-541 , 2000. FIGURE 14 is a graph of time-to-breakdown at 63% distribution vs. gate voltage in a semi-log scale measured n channel FETs (inversion) for oxide thickness varying from 2.3 nm to 5.0 nm. The distributions are in general agreement and are linear, TurcnerindicatlfigT" th t "the process is controllable.

0072Miranda et al. measured the l-V characteristics of nMOSFET devices having an oxide thickness of 3 nm and an area of 6.4 x 10^"5 cm² after the detection of successive breakdown events. Miranda et al., "Analytic Modeling of Leakage Current Through Multiple Breakdown Paths in SiO₂ Films", IEEE 39^th Annual International Reliability Physics Symposium, Orlando, FL, 2001 , pp 367-379. FIGURE 15 shows the results corresponding to the linear regime in which "N" is the number of conducting channels. The results are quite linear, indicating that the path is essentially resistive.

0073The memory array 100 shown in FIGURE 1 is in practice part of a memory integrated circuit that includes many other well-known elements such as sense amplifiers, pull-up circuits, word line amplifiers, sense amplifiers, decoders, voltage multipliers, and so forth. An illustrative memory 1600 is shown in FIGURE 16, and includes control logic 1602, an address latch 1604, a high voltage pump 1606, a Y decoder 1608, an X decoder 1610, an input/output buffer 1612, a sense amplifier 1614, and a memory cell array 1616, which may be like the memory array 100 or the memory array 500. The high voltage pump 1606 is useful in some arrangements such as shown in the tables of FIGS. 8 and 9 requiring a high programming voltage such as 7.0 volts. The high voltage is furnished to the lines as required; in FIGURE 16 the high voltage is required at the column or Y lines only, such as required by the arrangement indicated by the table of FIGURE 8. As these elements and their use in conjunction with memory arrays whose operational parameters are clearly defined are otherwise well known in the art, they are not described further herein. It will be appreciated that memory 1600 is only illustrative as many other techniques for addressing a memory array, for transferring data into and out of a memory array, for supplying the various operating voltages required by the memory array, and so forth may be used as desired.

0074The memory incorporating the memory array 100 preferably is manufactured using any advanced process that makes n type gated devices, p type gated devices, or both types of devices, and can achieve a gate dielectric that is sufficiently thin to be stressed to SBD or HBD in a practical time using a voltage that is less than the junction voltage or the available thickest oxide breakdown voltage. Advanced CMOS logic processes are quite suitable, ana are"descriDea"τh""th^'e 1fte afluf^;e;""See, e.g., United States Patent No. 5,700,729, issued December 23, 1997 to Lee et al. Processing services using such processes are available from various manufacturers, including Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, Ltd. ("TSMC") of Hsinchu, Taiwan, and San Jose, California; United Microelectronics Corporation ("UMC") of Hsinchu, Taiwan, and Chartered Semiconductor Ltd. of Singapore and San Jose, California. However, any of a great many different MOS processes of different lithography may be used, including but not limited to 0.25 μm, 0.18 μm, 0.15 μm, and 0.13 μm which are commonly available at present, and lithography of 0.10 μm and better which are likely to be commonly available in the future.

0075All of the various MOS transistors, MOS half-transistors, and MOS capacitors used in the various memory cells described herein in most cases are normal low voltage logic transistors having, for example, an ultra-thin gate oxide thickness on the order of 50A for a 0.25 μm process, or on the order of 20A for a 0.13 μm process. The voltage across such an ultra-thin gate oxide can be temporarily during programming much higher than V_Cc, which typically is 2.5 volts for an integrated circuit fabricated with a 0.25 μm process, and 1.2 volts for an integrated circuit fabricated with a 0.13 μm process. Such ultra-thin oxides typically can stand up to as much as 4 or 5 volts without significant degradation on the transistor performance. In the event that voltages are used in the memory array that expose the cell select transistors to more than about 4 volts, which is the case for the voltages shown in the table of FIGURE 9, the cell select transistors preferably are fabricated with a thicker gate oxide while the half-transistors or capacitors are fabricated with the ultra-thin gate oxide. Many CMOS logic processes provide for the formation of both an ultra-thin gate oxide and a thicker oxide for input/output ("I/O") purposes, the thicker oxide being, for example, about 70A for an integrated circuit fabricated for a 3.3 volt I/O, and about 50A for an integrated circuit fabricated for a 2.5 volt I/O.

0076The principles and structures discussed above can be used to form a reprogrammable memory cell. Consequently, the reprogrammable memory cells can be used to form a reprogrammable memory array. In particular, by controlling the degree of breakdown of the ultra-thin dielectrics of the half transistors or capacitors, the magnitude of the current that is drawn Dy τne'"m'emύry""όe'l'ls""d^'uri'ilg a read operation can be used to indicate the data stored within a memory cell. Thus, the memory cell can be reprogrammed by successively increasing the degree or amount of breakdown of the ultra-thin dielectric.

0077As noted above, the amount of current drawn during reading of a memory cell is dependent upon the extent of the breakdown of the ultra-thin dielectric. Thus, the current drawn from a memory cell will be more for a hard breakdown condition then for a soft breakdown condition. Similarly, the current drawn from a memory cell will be more for a soft breakdown condition then for a no breakdown condition. Further, as shown above, the ultra-thin dielectric can be in any one of several (or plurality) breakdown states ranging from no breakdown to hard breakdown.

0078As an example to further illustrate, for a soft breakdown condition, current will be drawn during the read operation. If, however, the memory cell is not programmed, then the ultra-thin dielectric has not undergone any breakdown stress, and no current will be drawn during the read operation. In that situation, where the memory cell is programmed for a first time, the current drawn from non-programmed memory cells is extremely small, perhaps on the order of less than one picoampere (pA). For those memory cells that have been programmed a first time, typically to a first soft breakdown state, the current drawn during the read operation is some discrete amount, perhaps on the order of greater than ten picoamperes. Therefore, the read operation after a first programming should be able to distinguish between non-programmed memory cells which draw an extremely small current (less than 1 pA) and programmed memory cells that draw a current greater than 10 pA. It should be noted that the current drawn is in large part dependent upon the geometry of the memory cell and that the examples discussed above is merely exemplar. Therefore, other magnitudes of drawn current are entirely possible. The important consideration is that a differentiation exists between the amount of drawn current from a programmed memory cell and an unprogrammed memory cell. The differentiation should be sufficient for current sensing apparatus.

0079Such reprogrammable memory cells (and individual memory cells comprising of memory array) can be reprogrammed (i.e. programmed a second time and subsequent times) by incrementally stressing the ultra-thin dielectric layer to a second state of breakdown. This can be accomplished by programming the selected memory cells that are to be programmed" usιπg"""a h'igher"pfό"ørarri'rrιing voltage or applying the programming voltage for a greater amount of time. While either technique may be used, the crucial attribute is that the ultra-thin dielectric in programmed cells should undergo additional stress in order to induce greater breakdown.

0080It has been found that an increase in stress voltage of one volt will reduce the breakdown time by approximately three orders of magnitude. As an example, for a 20 angstrom thick gate oxide, the breakdown at four volts is about one second, whereas the breakdown at five volts is about one millisecond.

0081In accordance with the present invention, the breakdown of the gate oxide can be controlled by controlling the voltage applied to the gate of the row select transistors 115, 116, 117, and 118 of Figure 1. The row select transistors are those transistors that select the specific row to be programmed. These row select transistors are controlled by lines R-i, R₂, R₃, and R₄ in Figures 1 and 5.

0082By controlling the gate voltage, the amount of current that is used to program the half-transistors can be carefully controlled. Thus, by applying different levels of gate bias on the row select transistor during programming, the amount of current causing breakdown can be controlled. For example, the voltage applied to the gate oxide can be held constant and the time for programming held constant, but the gate bias to the row select transistor can be used to control the amount of current breaking down the gate oxide. In this manner, the amount of breakdown to the gate oxide can be more accurately controlled.

0083Indeed, it is found that the amount of current during the read operation is related to the amount of current used to break down the gate oxide. In other words, the post break down current is related to the current used to initially break down the gate oxide.

0084As seen in Figure 13, different states of breakdown of the ultra-thin dielectric provides different current characteristics while the memory cell is read. In the example shown in Figure 13, there are five distinct breakdown states varying from soft breakdown to hard breakdown. If, for example, a read voltage of two volts is used, the amount of current drawn by a memory cell varies from 5 nanoamperes (nA) for a memory cell at a first soft breakdown state. This is shown by reference number 1301 in Figure 13. Further, at a second breakdown state, at a read voltage of 2 volts, the current drawn by memory cell is drϊ the "order^' Of 5"nA. "ThlS'"ϊέ^' sHbwn by reference numeral 1303. Moving further, at a third breakdown state, the current drawn by memory cell is on the order of one microamp, as shown by reference numeral 1305. At a fourth breakdown state, the current drawn by a memory cell is on the order of 5 microamps, as shown by reference numeral 1307. Finally, at a fifth breakdown state (hard breakdown) the current drawn by memory cell is on the order of 0.5 milliamps, as shown by reference numeral 1309.

0085While five breakdown states are illustrated in Figure 13, it can be appreciated that fewer or more discreet breakdown states can be implemented in the reprogramming process in order to increase the potential number of cycles of reprogramming. The primary limitation to a large number of reprogramming cycles is the ability to form a current sensor circuit that is able to distinguish between the various magnitudes of current being drawn by a memory cell.

0086In one regard, the memory cells can be "erased" by simply raising the current sensing threshold. For example, after a first programming, assume that the memory cell is considered programmed if a current above 15 nA is sensed. Memory cells are considered not programmed if less than 15 nA is sensed. The entire memory cell array can be erased to a ""clean slate"" simply by raising the magnitude of current the current sensing circuit responds to. Thus, by raising the threshold to, for example, 5 microamps, all of the memory cells will be considered erased, since none of them (even the previously programmed memory cells) will exhibit a current more than 5 microamps during the read operation.

0087Thus, in summary, each memory cell can be programmed to one of a plurality of breakdown states. As reprogramming takes place, various memory cells are programmed to breakdown states that result in a larger and larger current being drawn by the memory cell. The current is sensed by the sense amplifier 1614 in order to determine whether or not a memory cell has been programmed. All cells that do not have a current drawn that is greater than some predetermined threshold (varying as the memory array is cycled through reprogramming procedures), are determined to carry one data state. All memory cells that exhibit a current draw that is greater than a predetermined threshold, will exhibit another memory state.

0088The description of the invention and its applications as set forth herein is illustrative and is not intended to limit the scope of the invention. Variations and modifications of the embodiments disclosed herein are' ^'p^'ό ^'sTbre,'^'''aπd''^'''pra'cTϊcal alternatives to and equivalents of the various elements of the embodiments are known to those of ordinary skill in the art. For example, the various voltages set forth in the various examples are only illustrative, since one has some discretion as to the precise voltage to select within a range of voltages, and the voltages are in any event dependent on the device characteristics. The terms row line, column line, and source line have been used to describe types of lines commonly used in memories, but some memories may alternatives thereto. Generally speaking, row lines may be considered to be a specific type of select line, and column and source lines may be considered to be specific types of access lines. These and other variations and modifications of the embodiments disclosed herein may be made without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention.