Compacted coupling joint for coupling insulated conductors

o»w« *n»>s

COMPACTED COUPLING JOINT FOR COUPLING INSULATED CONDUCTORS

Shell Internationale Research Maatschappij B.V. C.215265 WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022

COMPACTED COUPLING JOINT FOR COUPLING INSULATED CONDUCTORS

BACKGROUND 1. Field of the Invention [0001] The present invention relates to systems for insulated conductors used in heater elements. More particularly, the invention relates to fittings to splice together insulated conductor cables. 2. Description of Related Art [0002] Hydrocarbons obtained from subterranean formations are often used as energy resources, as feedstocks, and as consumer products. Concerns over depletion of available hydrocarbon resources and concerns over declining overall quality of produced hydrocarbons have led to development of processes for more efficient recovery, processing and/or use of available hydrocarbon resources. In situ processes may be used to remove hydrocarbon materials from subterranean formations that were previously inaccessible and/or too expensive to extract using available methods. Chemical and/or physical properties of hydrocarbon material in a subterranean formation may need to be changed to allow hydrocarbon material to be more easily removed from the subterranean formation and/or increase the value of the hydrocarbon material. The chemical and physical changes may include in situ reactions that produce removable fluids, composition changes, solubility changes, density changes, phase changes, and/or viscosity changes of the hydrocarbon material in the formation.

[0003] Heaters may be placed in wellbores to heat a formation during an in situ process. There are many different types of heaters which may be used to heat the formation. Examples of in situ processes utilizing downhole heaters are illustrated in U.S. Patent Nos. 2,634,961 to Ljungstrom; 2,732,195 to Ljungstrom; 2,780,450 to Ljungstrom; 2,789,805 to Ljungstrom; 2,923,535 to Ljungstrom; 4,886,118 to Van Meurs et al.; and 6,688,387 to Wellington et al.

[0004] Mineral insulated (MI) cables (insulated conductors) for use in subsurface applications, such as heating hydrocarbon containing formations in some applications, are longer, may have larger outside diameters, and may operate at higher voltages and temperatures than what is typical in the MI cable industry. There are many potential problems during manufacture and/or assembly of long length insulated conductors.

[0005] For example, there are potential electrical and/or mechanical problems due to degradation over time of the electrical insulator used in the insulated conductor. There are also potential problems with electrical insulators to overcome during assembly of the insulated conductor heater. Problems such as core bulge or other mechanical defects may occur during assembly of 1

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD00021.tif" id="idf0001" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 the insulated conductor heater. Such occurrences may lead to electrical problems during use of the heater and may potentially render the heater inoperable for its intended purpose.

[0006] In addition, for subsurface applications, the joining of multiple MI cables may be needed to make MI cables with sufficient length to reach the depths and distances needed to heat the subsurface efficiently and to join segments with different functions, such as lead-in cables joined to heater sections. Such long heaters also require higher voltages to provide enough power to the farthest ends of the heaters.

[0007] Conventional MI cable splice designs are typically not suitable for voltages above 1000 volts, above 1500 volts, or above 2000 volts and may not operate for extended periods without failure at elevated temperatures, such as over 650 °C (about 1200 °F), over 700 °C (about 1290 °F), or over 800 °C (about 1470 °F). Such high voltage, high temperature applications typically require the compaction of the mineral insulant in the splice to be as close as possible to or above the level of compaction in the insulated conductor (MI cable) itself.

[0008] The relatively large outside diameter and long length of MI cables for some applications requires that the cables be spliced while oriented horizontally. There are splices for other applications of MI cables that have been fabricated horizontally. These techniques typically use a small hole through which the mineral insulation (such as magnesium oxide powder) is filled into the splice and compacted slightly through vibration and tamping. Such methods do not provide sufficient compaction of the mineral insulation or even allow any compaction of the mineral insulation, and are not suitable for making splices for use at the high voltages needed for these subsurface applications.

[0009] Thus, there is a need for splices of insulated conductors that are simple yet can operate at the high voltages and temperatures in the subsurface environment over long durations without failure. In addition, the splices may need higher bending and tensile strengths to inhibit failure of the splice under the weight loads and temperatures that the cables can be subjected to in the subsurface. Techniques and methods also may be utilized to reduce electric field intensities in the splices so that leakage currents in the splices are reduced and to increase the margin between the operating voltage and electrical breakdown. Reducing electric field intensities may help increase voltage and temperature operating ranges of the splices.

[0010] In addition, there may be problems with increased stress on the insulated conductors during assembly and/or installation into the subsurface of the insulated conductors. For example, winding and unwinding of the insulated conductors on spools used for transport and installation of the insulated conductors may lead to mechanical stress on the electrical insulators and/or other components in the insulated conductors. Thus, more reliable systems and methods are needed to 2

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD00022.tif" id="idf0002" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 reduce or eliminate potential problems during manufacture, assembly, and/or installation of insulated conductors.

SUMMARY

[0011] Embodiments described herein generally relate to systems, methods, and heaters for treating a subsurface formation. Embodiments described herein also generally relate to heaters that have novel components therein. Such heaters can be obtained by using the systems and methods described herein.

[0012] In certain embodiments, the invention provides one or more systems, methods, and/or heaters. In some embodiments, the systems, methods, and/or heaters are used for treating a subsurface formation.

[0013] In certain embodiments, a fitting for coupling an end of a first insulated conductor to an end of a second insulated conductor comprises: a first splice housing configured to be placed over the end of the first insulated conductor and coupled to the first insulated conductor, the first splice housing having an interior volume that tapers from a larger diameter at the end of the first splice housing facing the end of the first insulated conductor to a smaller diameter at or near the end of the first splice housing configured to be coupled to the first insulated conductor; a second splice housing configured to be placed over the end of the second insulated conductor and coupled to the second insulated conductor, the second splice housing having an interior volume that tapers from a larger diameter at the end of the second splice housing facing the end of the second insulated conductor to a smaller diameter at or near the end of the second splice housing configured to be coupled to the second insulated conductor; and a sleeve configured to be located over the end of the second insulated conductor and adjacent to the second splice housing, the sleeve being configured to be coupled to at least one of the splice housings; wherein an interior volume of the fitting is configured to be substantially filled with electrically insulating material, and the interior volume of the fitting is configured to be reduced such that the electrically insulating material substantially filling the interior volume is compacted.

[0014] In certain embodiments, a method for coupling an end of a first insulated conductor to an end of a second insulated conductor, comprises: placing a first splice housing over the end of the first insulated conductor; placing a second splice housing over the end of the second insulated conductor; placing a sleeve over the second insulated conductor and the second splice housing such that the sleeve is substantially adjacent to the second splice housing and located over the end of the second insulated conductor; coupling the first splice housing to the first insulated conductor; bringing the second splice housing and the sleeve together with the first splice housing such that the splice housings and the sleeve form a fitting with an interior volume; 3

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD00023.tif" id="idf0003" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 substantially filling at least a majority of the interior volume of the fitting with electrically insulating material; reducing the interior volume of the fitting such that the electrically insulating material substantially filling the interior volume is compacted; coupling the sleeve to the second splice housing; and coupling the second splice housing to the second insulated conductor.

[0015] In further embodiments, features from specific embodiments may be combined with features from other embodiments. For example, features from one embodiment may be combined with features from any of the other embodiments.

[0016] In further embodiments, treating a subsurface formation is performed using any of the methods, systems, power supplies, or heaters described herein.

[0017] In further embodiments, additional features may be added to the specific embodiments described herein. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0018] Features and advantages of the methods and apparatus of the present invention will be more fully appreciated by reference to the following detailed description of presently preferred but nonetheless illustrative embodiments in accordance with the present invention when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

[0019] FIG. 1 shows a schematic view of an embodiment of a portion of an in situ heat treatment system for treating a hydrocarbon containing formation.

[0020] FIG. 2 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor heat source.

[0021] FIG. 3 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor heat source.

[0022] FIG. 4 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor heat source.

[0023] FIG. 5 depicts a side view cross-sectional representation of one embodiment of a fitting for joining insulated conductors.

[0024] FIG. 6 depicts an embodiment of a cutting tool.

[0025] FIG. 7 depicts a side view cross-sectional representation of another embodiment of a fitting for joining insulated conductors.

[0026] FIG. 8A depicts a side view of a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a threaded fitting for coupling three insulated conductors.

[0027] FIG. 8B depicts a side view of a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a welded fitting for coupling three insulated conductors.

[0028] FIG. 9 depicts an embodiment of a torque tool.

[0029] FIG. 10 depicts an embodiment of a clamp assembly that may be used to compact mechanically a fitting for joining insulated conductors.

[0030] FIG. 11 depicts an exploded view of an embodiment of a hydraulic compaction machine. 4

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD00024.tif" id="idf0004" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 [0031] FIG. 12 depicts a representation of an embodiment of an assembled hydraulic compaction machine.

[0032] FIG. 13 depicts an embodiment of a fitting and insulated conductors secured in clamp assemblies before compaction of the fitting and insulated conductors.

[0033] While the invention is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof are shown by way of example in the drawings and will herein be described in detail. The drawings may not be to scale. It should be understood that the drawings and detailed description thereto are not intended to limit the invention to the particular form disclosed, but to the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0034] The following description generally relates to systems and methods for treating hydrocarbons in the formations. Such formations may be treated to yield hydrocarbon products, hydrogen, and other products.

[0035] “Alternating current (AC)” refers to a time-varying current that reverses direction substantially sinusoidally. AC produces skin effect electricity flow in a ferromagnetic conductor. [0036] “Coupled” means either a direct connection or an indirect connection (for example, one or more intervening connections) between one or more objects or components. The phrase “directly connected” means a direct connection between objects or components such that the objects or components are connected directly to each other so that the objects or components operate in a “point of use” manner.

[0037] A “formation” includes one or more hydrocarbon containing layers, one or more nonhydrocarbon layers, an overburden, and/or an underburden. “Hydrocarbon layers” refer to layers in the formation that contain hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbon layers may contain nonhydrocarbon material and hydrocarbon material. The “overburden” and/or the “underburden” include one or more different types of impermeable materials. For example, the overburden and/or underburden may include rock, shale, mudstone, or wet/tight carbonate. In some embodiments of in situ heat treatment processes, the overburden and/or the underburden may include a hydrocarbon containing layer or hydrocarbon containing layers that are relatively impermeable and are not subjected to temperatures during in situ heat treatment processing that result in significant characteristic changes of the hydrocarbon containing layers of the overburden and/or the underburden. For example, the underburden may contain shale or mudstone, but the underburden is not allowed to heat to pyrolysis temperatures during the in situ 5

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD00025.tif" id="idf0005" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 heat treatment process. In some cases, the overburden and/or the underburden may be somewhat permeable.

[0038] “Formation fluids” refer to fluids present in a formation and may include pyrolyzation fluid, synthesis gas, mobilized hydrocarbons, and water (steam). Formation fluids may include hydrocarbon fluids as well as non-hydrocarbon fluids. The term “mobilized fluid” refers to fluids in a hydrocarbon containing formation that are able to flow as a result of thermal treatment of the formation. “Produced fluids” refer to fluids removed from the formation.

[0039] A “heat source” is any system for providing heat to at least a portion of a formation substantially by conductive and/or radiative heat transfer. For example, a heat source may include electrically conducting materials and/or electric heaters such as an insulated conductor, an elongated member, and/or a conductor disposed in a conduit. A heat source may also include systems that generate heat by burning a fuel external to or in a formation. The systems may be surface burners, downhole gas burners, flameless distributed combustors, and natural distributed combustors. In some embodiments, heat provided to or generated in one or more heat sources may be supplied by other sources of energy. The other sources of energy may directly heat a formation, or the energy may be applied to a transfer medium that directly or indirectly heats the formation. It is to be understood that one or more heat sources that are applying heat to a formation may use different sources of energy. Thus, for example, for a given formation some heat sources may supply heat from electrically conducting materials, electric resistance heaters, some heat sources may provide heat from combustion, and some heat sources may provide heat from one or more other energy sources (for example, chemical reactions, solar energy, wind energy, biomass, or other sources of renewable energy). A chemical reaction may include an exothermic reaction (for example, an oxidation reaction). A heat source may also include a electrically conducting material and/or a heater that provides heat to a zone proximate and/or surrounding a heating location such as a heater well.

[0040] A “heater” is any system or heat source for generating heat in a well or a near wellbore region. Heaters may be, but are not limited to, electric heaters, burners, combustors that react with material in or produced from a formation, and/or combinations thereof.

[0041] “Hydrocarbons” are generally defined as molecules formed primarily by carbon and hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons may also include other elements such as, but not limited to, halogens, metallic elements, nitrogen, oxygen, and/or sulfur. Hydrocarbons may be, but are not limited to, kerogen, bitumen, pyrobitumen, oils, natural mineral waxes, and asphaltites. Hydrocarbons may be located in or adjacent to mineral matrices in the earth. Matrices may include, but are not limited to, sedimentary rock, sands, silicilytes, carbonates, diatomites, and other porous media. “Hydrocarbon fluids” are fluids that include hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbon 6 WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 fluids may include, entrain, or be entrained in non-hydrocarbon fluids such as hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, water, and ammonia.

[0042] An “in situ conversion process” refers to a process of heating a hydrocarbon containing formation from heat sources to raise the temperature of at least a portion of the formation above a pyrolysis temperature so that pyrolyzation fluid is produced in the formation.

[0043] An “in situ heat treatment process” refers to a process of heating a hydrocarbon containing formation with heat sources to raise the temperature of at least a portion of the formation above a temperature that results in mobilized fluid, visbreaking, and/or pyrolysis of hydrocarbon containing material so that mobilized fluids, visbroken fluids, and/or pyrolyzation fluids are produced in the formation.

[0044] 1 ‘Insulated conductor” refers to any elongated material that is able to conduct electricity and that is covered, in whole or in part, by an electrically insulating material.

[0045] “Nitride” refers to a compound of nitrogen and one or more other elements of the Periodic Table. Nitrides include, but are not limited to, silicon nitride, boron nitride, or alumina nitride.

[0046] “Perforations” include openings, slits, apertures, or holes in a wall of a conduit, tubular, pipe or other flow pathway that allow flow into or out of the conduit, tubular, pipe or other flow pathway.

[0047] “Pyrolysis” is the breaking of chemical bonds due to the application of heat. For example, pyrolysis may include transforming a compound into one or more other substances by heat alone. Heat may be transferred to a section of the formation to cause pyrolysis.

[0048] “Pyrolyzation fluids” or “pyrolysis products” refers to fluid produced substantially during pyrolysis of hydrocarbons. Fluid produced by pyrolysis reactions may mix with other fluids in a formation. The mixture would be considered pyrolyzation fluid or pyrolyzation product. As used herein, “pyrolysis zone” refers to a volume, of.a formation (for example, a relatively permeable formation such as a tar sands formation) that is reacted or reacting to form a pyrolyzation fluid.

[0049] “Thickness” of a layer refers to the thickness of a cross section of the layer, wherein the cross section is normal to a face of the layer.

[0050] The term “wellbore” refers to a hole in a formation made by drilling or insertion of a conduit into the formation. A wellbore may have a substantially circular cross section, or another cross-sectional shape. As used herein, the terms “well” and “opening,” when referring to an opening in the formation may be used interchangeably with the term “wellbore.” [0051] A formation may be treated in various ways to produce many different products.

Different stages or processes may be used to treat the formation during an in situ heat treatment 7 WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 process. In some embodiments, one or more sections of the formation are solution mined to remove soluble minerals from the sections. Solution mining minerals may be performed before, during, and/or after the in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments, the average temperature of one or more sections being solution mined may be maintained below about 120 °C.

[0052] In some embodiments, one or more sections of the formation are heated to remove water from the sections and/or to remove methane and other volatile hydrocarbons from the sections. In some embodiments, the average temperature may be raised from ambient temperature to temperatures below about 220 °C during removal of water and volatile hydrocarbons.

[0053] In some embodiments, one or more sections of the formation are heated to temperatures that allow for movement and/or visbreaking of hydrocarbons in the formation. In some embodiments, the average temperature of one or more sections of the formation are raised to mobilization temperatures of hydrocarbons in the sections (for example, to temperatures ranging from 100 °C to 250 °C, from 120 °C to 240 °C, or from 150 °C to 230 °C).

[0054] In some embodiments, one or more sections are heated to temperatures that allow for pyrolysis reactions in the formation. In some embodiments, the average temperature of one or more sections of the formation may be raised to pyrolysis temperatures of hydrocarbons in the sections (for example, temperatures ranging from 230 °C to 900 °C, from 240 °C to 400 °C or from 250 °C to 350 °C).

[0055] Heating the hydrocarbon containing formation with a plurality of heat sources may establish thermal gradients around the heat sources that raise the temperature of hydrocarbons in the formation to desired temperatures at desired heating rates. The rate of temperature increase through the mobilization temperature range and/or the pyrolysis temperature range for desired products may affect the quality and quantity of the formation fluids produced from the hydrocarbon containing formation. Slowly raising the temperature of the formation through the mobilization temperature range and/or pyrolysis temperature range may allow for the production of high quality, high API gravity hydrocarbons from the formation. Slowly raising the temperature of the formation through the mobilization temperature range and/or pyrolysis temperature range may allow for the removal of a large amount of the hydrocarbons present in the formation as hydrocarbon product.

[0056] In some in situ heat treatment embodiments, a portion of the formation is heated to a desired temperature instead of slowly heating the temperature through a temperature range. In some embodiments, the desired temperature is 300 °C, 325 °C, or 350 °C. Other temperatures may be selected as the desired temperature. 8

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD00026.tif" id="idf0006" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 [0057] Superposition of heat from, heat sources allows the desired temperature to be relatively quickly and efficiently established in the formation. Energy input into the formation from the heat sources may be adjusted to maintain the temperature in the formation substantially at a desired temperature.

[0058] Mobilization and/or pyrolysis products may be produced from the formation through production wells. In some embodiments, the average temperature of one or more sections is raised to mobilization temperatures and hydrocarbons are produced from the production wells. The average temperature of one or more of the sections may be raised to pyrolysis temperatures after production due to mobilization decreases below a selected value. In some embodiments, the average temperature of one or more sections may be raised to pyrolysis temperatures without significant production before reaching pyrolysis temperatures. Formation fluids including pyrolysis products may be produced through the production wells.

[0059] In some embodiments, the average temperature of one or more sections may be raised to temperatures sufficient to allow synthesis gas production after mobilization and/or pyrolysis. In some embodiments, hydrocarbons may be raised to temperatures sufficient to allow synthesis gas production without significant production before reaching the temperatures sufficient to allow synthesis gas production. For example, synthesis gas may be produced in a temperature range from about 400 °C to about 1200 °C, about 500 °C to about 1100 °C, or about 550 °C to about 1000 °C. A synthesis gas generating fluid (for example, steam and/or water) may be introduced into the sections to generate synthesis gas. Synthesis gas may be produced from production wells.

[0060] Solution mining, removal of volatile hydrocarbons and water, mobilizing hydrocarbons, pyrolyzing hydrocarbons, generating synthesis gas, and/or other processes may be performed during the in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments, some processes may be performed after the in situ heat treatment process. Such processes may include, but are not limited to, recovering heat from treated sections, storing fluids (for example, water and/or hydrocarbons) in previously treated sections, and/or sequestering carbon dioxide in previously treated sections.

[0061] FIG. 1 depicts a schematic view of an embodiment of a portion of the in situ heat treatment system for treating the hydrocarbon containing formation. The in situ heat treatment system may include barrier wells 200. Barrier wells are used to form a barrier around a treatment area. The barrier inhibits fluid flow into and/or out of the treatment area. Barrier wells include, but are not limited to, dewatering wells, vacuum wells, capture wells, injection wells, grout wells, freeze wells, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, barrier wells 200 are dewatering wells. Dewatering wells may remove liquid water and/or inhibit liquid water from 9

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD00027.tif" id="idf0007" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 entering a portion of the formation to be heated, or to the formation being heated. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 1, the barrier wells 200 are shown extending only along one side of heat sources 202, but the barrier wells typically encircle all heat sources 202 used, or to be used, to heat a treatment area of the formation.

[0062] Heat sources 202 are placed in at least a portion of the formation. Heat sources 202 may include heaters such as insulated conductors, conductor-in-conduit heaters, surface burners, flameless distributed combustors, and/or natural distributed combustors. Heat sources 202 may also include other types of heaters. Heat sources 202 provide heat to at least a portion of the formation to heat hydrocarbons in the formation. Energy may be supplied to heat sources 202 through supply lines 204. Supply lines 204 may be structurally different depending on the type of heat source or heat sources used to heat the formation. Supply lines 204 for heat sources may transmit electricity for electric heaters, may transport fuel for combustors, or may transport heat exchange fluid that is circulated in the formation. In some embodiments, electricity for an in situ heat treatment process may be provided by a nuclear power plant or nuclear power plants. The use of nuclear power may allow for reduction or elimination of carbon dioxide emissions from the in situ heat treatment process.

[0063] When the formation is heated, the heat input into the formation may cause expansion of the formation and geomechanical motion. The heat sources may be turned on before, at the same time, or during a dewatering process. Computer simulations may model formation response to heating. The computer simulations may be used to develop a pattern and time sequence for activating heat sources in the formation so that geomechanical motion of the formation does not adversely affect the functionality of heat sources, production wells, and other equipment in the formation.

[0064] Heating the formation may cause an increase in permeability and/or porosity of the formation. Increases in permeability and/or porosity may result from a reduction of mass in the formation due to vaporization and removal of water, removal of hydrocarbons, and/or creation of fractures. Fluid may flow more easily in the heated portion of the formation because of the increased permeability and/or porosity of the formation. Fluid in the heated portion of the formation may move a considerable distance through the formation because of the increased permeability and/or porosity. The considerable distance may be over 1000 m depending on various factors, such as permeability of the formation, properties of the fluid, temperature of the formation, and pressure gradient allowing movement of the fluid. The ability of fluid to travel considerable distance in the formation allows production wells 206 to be spaced relatively far apart in the formation. 10

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD00028.tif" id="idf0008" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 [0065] Production wells 206 are used to remove formation fluid from the formation. In some embodiments, production well 206 includes a heat source. The heat source in the production well may heat one or more portions of the formation at or near the production well. In some in situ heat treatment process embodiments, the amount of heat supplied to the formation from the production well per meter of the production well is less than the amount of heat applied to the formation from a heat source that heats the formation per meter of the heat source. Heat applied to the formation from the production well may increase formation permeability adjacent to the production well by vaporizing and removing liquid phase fluid adjacent to the production well and/or by increasing the permeability of the formation adjacent to the production well by formation of macro and/or micro fractures.

[0066] More than one heat source may be positioned in the production well. A heat source in a lower portion of the production well may be turned off when superposition of heat from adjacent heat sources heats the formation sufficiently to counteract benefits provided by heating the formation with the production well. In some embodiments, the heat source in an upper portion of the production well may remain on after the heat source in the lower portion of the production well is deactivated. The heat source in the upper portion of the well may inhibit condensation and reflux of formation fluid.

[0067] In some embodiments, the heat source in production well 206 allows for vapor phase removal of formation fluids from the formation. Providing heating at or through the production well may: (1) inhibit condensation and/or refluxing of production fluid when such production fluid is moving in the production well proximate the overburden, (2) increase heat input into the formation, (3) increase production rate from the production well as compared to a production well without a heat source, (4) inhibit condensation of high carbon number compounds (C6 hydrocarbons and above) in the production well, and/or (5) increase formation permeability at or proximate the production well.

[0068] Subsurface pressure in the formation may correspond to the fluid pressure generated in the formation. As temperatures in the heated portion of the formation increase, the pressure in the heated portion may increase as a result of thermal expansion of in situ fluids, increased fluid generation and vaporization of water. Controlling rate of fluid removal from the formation may allow for control of pressure in the formation. Pressure in the formation may be determined at a number of different locations, such as near or at production wells, near or at heat sources, or at monitor wells.

[0069] In some hydrocarbon containing formations, production of hydrocarbons from the formation is inhibited until at least some hydrocarbons in the formation have been mobilized and/or pyrolyzed. Formation fluid may be produced from the formation when the formation fluid 11

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD00029.tif" id="idf0009" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 is of a selected quality. In some embodiments, the selected quality includes an API gravity of at least about 20°, 30°, or 40°. Inhibiting production until at least some hydrocarbons are mobilized and/or pyrolyzed may increase conversion of heavy hydrocarbons to light hydrocarbons. Inhibiting initial production may minimize the production of heavy hydrocarbons from the formation. Production of substantial amounts of heavy hydrocarbons may require expensive equipment and/or reduce the life of production equipment.

[0070] In some hydrocarbon containing formations, hydrocarbons in the formation may be heated to mobilization and/or pyrolysis temperatures before substantial permeability has been generated in the heated portion of the formation. An initial lack of permeability may inhibit the transport of generated fluids to production wells 206. During initial heating, fluid pressure in the formation may increase proximate heat sources 202. The increased fluid pressure may be released, monitored, altered, and/or controlled through one or more heat sources 202. For example, selected heat sources 202 or separate pressure relief wells may include pressure relief valves that allow for removal of some fluid from the formation.

[0071] In some embodiments, pressure generated by expansion of mobilized fluids, pyrolysis fluids or other fluids generated in the formation may be allowed to increase although an open path to production wells 206 or any other pressure sink may not yet exist in the formation. The fluid pressure may be allowed to increase towards a lithostatic pressure. Fractures in the hydrocarbon containing formation may form when the fluid approaches the lithostatic pressure. For example, fractures may form from heat sources 202 to production wells 206 in the heated portion of the formation. The generation of fractures in the heated portion may relieve some of the pressure in the portion. Pressure in the formation may have to be maintained below a selected pressure to inhibit unwanted production, fracturing of the overburden or underburden, and/or coking of hydrocarbons in the formation.

[0072] After mobilization and/or pyrolysis temperatures are reached and production from the formation is allowed, pressure in the formation may be varied to alter and/or control a composition of formation fluid produced, to control a percentage of condensable fluid as compared to non-condensable fluid in the formation fluid, and/or to control an API gravity of formation fluid being produced. For example, decreasing pressure may result in production of a larger condensable fluid component. The condensable fluid component may contain a larger percentage of olefins.

[0073] In some in situ heat treatment process embodiments, pressure in the formation may be maintained high enough to promote production of formation fluid with an API gravity of greater than 20°. Maintaining increased pressure in the formation may inhibit formation subsidence during in situ heat treatment. Maintaining increased pressure may reduce or eliminate the need 12

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD000210.tif" id="idf0010" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 to compress formation fluids at the surface to transport the fluids in collection conduits to treatment facilities.

[0074] Maintaining increased pressure in a heated portion of the formation may surprisingly allow for production of large quantities of hydrocarbons of increased quality and of relatively low molecular weight. Pressure may be maintained so that formation fluid produced has a minimal amount of compounds above a selected carbon number. The selected carbon number may be at most 25, at most 20, at most 12, or at most 8. Some high carbon number compounds may be entrained in vapor in the formation and may be removed from the formation with the vapor. Maintaining increased pressure in the formation may inhibit entrainment of high carbon number compounds and/or multi-ring hydrocarbon compounds in the vapor. High carbon number compounds and/or multi-ring hydrocarbon compounds may remain in a liquid phase in the formation for significant time periods. The significant time periods may provide sufficient time for the compounds to pyrolyze to form lower carbon number compounds.

[0075] Generation of relatively low molecular weight hydrocarbons is believed to be due, in part, to autogenous generation and reaction of hydrogen in a portion of the hydrocarbon containing formation. For example, maintaining an increased pressure may force hydrogen generated during pyrolysis into the liquid phase within the formation. Heating the portion to a temperature in a pyrolysis temperature range may pyrolyze hydrocarbons in the formation to generate liquid phase pyrolyzation fluids. The generated liquid phase pyrolyzation fluids components may include double bonds and/or radicals. Hydrogen (H2) in the liquid phase may reduce double bonds of the generated pyrolyzation fluids, thereby reducing a potential for polymerization or formation of long chain compounds from the generated pyrolyzation fluids. In addition, H2 may also neutralize radicals in the generated pyrolyzation fluids. H2 in the liquid phase may inhibit the generated pyrolyzation fluids from reacting with each other and/or with other compounds in the formation.

[0076] Formation fluid produced from production wells 206 may be transported through collection piping 208 to treatment facilities 210. Formation fluids may also be produced from heat sources 202. For example, fluid may be produced from heat sources 202 to control pressure in the formation adjacent to the heat sources. Fluid produced from heat sources 202 may be transported through tubing or piping to collection piping 208 or the produced fluid may be transported through tubing or piping directly to treatment facilities 210. Treatment facilities 210 may include separation units, reaction units, upgrading units, fuel cells, turbines, storage vessels, and/or other systems and units for processing produced formation fluids. The treatment facilities may form transportation fuel from at least a portion of the hydrocarbons produced from the formation. In some embodiments, the transportation fuel may be jet fuel, such as JP-8. 13

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD000211.tif" id="idf0011" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 [0077] An insulated conductor may be used as an electric heater element of a heater or a heat source. The insulated conductor may include an inner electrical conductor (core) surrounded by an electrical insulator and an outer electrical conductor (jacket). The electrical insulator may include mineral insulation (for example, magnesium oxide) or other electrical insulation.

[0078] In certain embodiments, the insulated conductor is placed in an opening in a hydrocarbon containing formation. In some embodiments, the insulated conductor is placed in an uncased opening in the hydrocarbon containing formation. Placing the insulated conductor in an uncased opening in the hydrocarbon containing formation may allow heat transfer from the insulated conductor to the formation by radiation as well as conduction. Using an uncased opening may facilitate retrieval of the insulated conductor from the well, if necessary.

[0079] In some embodiments, an insulated conductor is placed within a casing in the formation; may be cemented within the formation; or may be packed in an opening with sand, gravel, or other fill material. The insulated conductor may be supported on a support member positioned within the opening. The support member may be a cable, rod, or a conduit (for example, a pipe). The support member may be made of a metal, ceramic, inorganic material, or combinations thereof. Because portions of a support member may be exposed to formation fluids and heat during use, the support member may be chemically resistant and/or thermally resistant.

[0080] Ties, spot welds, and/or other types of connectors may be used to couple the insulated . conductor to the support member at various locations along a length of the insulated conductor. The support member may be attached to a wellhead at an upper surface of the formation. In some embodiments, the insulated conductor has sufficient structural strength such that a support member is not needed. The insulated conductor may, in many instances, have at least some flexibility to inhibit thermal expansion damage when undergoing temperature changes.

[0081] In certain embodiments, insulated conductors are placed in wellbores without support members and/or centralizers. An insulated conductor without support members and/or centralizers may have a suitable combination of temperature and corrosion resistance, creep strength, length, thickness (diameter), and metallurgy that will inhibit failure of the insulated conductor during use.

[0082] FIG. 2 depicts a perspective view of an end portion of an embodiment of insulated conductor 212. Insulated conductor 212 may have any desired cross-sectional shape such as, but not limited to, round (depicted in FIG. 2), triangular, ellipsoidal, rectangular, hexagonal, or irregular. In certain embodiments, insulated conductor 212 includes core 214, electrical insulator 216, and j acket 218. Core 214 may resistively heat when an electrical current passes through the core. Alternating or time-varying current and/or direct current may be used to provide power to core 214 such that the core resistively heats. 14

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD000212.tif" id="idf0012" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 [0083] In some embodiments, electrical insulator 216 inhibits current leakage and arcing to jacket 218. Electrical insulator 216 may thermally conduct heat generated in core 214 to jacket 218. Jacket 218 may radiate or conduct heat to the formation. In certain embodiments, insulated conductor 212 is 1000 m or more in length. Longer or shorter insulated conductors may also be used to meet specific application needs. The dimensions of core 214, electrical insulator 216, and jacket 218 of insulated conductor 212 may be selected such that the insulated conductor has enough strength to be self supporting even at upper working temperature limits. Such insulated conductors may be suspended from wellheads or supports positioned near an interface between an overburden and a hydrocarbon containing formation without the need for support members extending into the hydrocarbon containing formation along with the insulated conductors.

[0084] Insulated conductor 212 may be designed to operate at power levels of up to about 1650 watts/meter or higher. In certain embodiments, insulated conductor 212 operates at a power level between about 500 watts/meter and about 1150 watts/meter when heating a formation. Insulated conductor 212 may be designed so that a maximum voltage level at a typical operating temperature does not cause substantial thermal and/or electrical breakdown of electrical insulator 216. Insulated conductor 212 may be designed such that jacket 218 does not exceed a ' t temperature that will result in a significant reduction in corrosion resistance properties of the jacket material. In certain embodiments, insulated conductor 212 may be designed to reach temperatures within a range between about 650 °C and about 900 °C. Insulated conductors having other operating ranges may be formed to meet specific operational requirements.

[0085] FIG. 2 depicts insulated conductor 212 having a single core 214. In some embodiments, insulated conductor 212 has two or more cores 214. For example, a single insulated conductor may have three cores. Core 214 may be made of metal or another electrically conductive material. The material used to form core 214 may include, but not be limited to, nichrome, copper, nickel, carbon steel, stainless steel, and combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, core 214 is chosen to have a diameter and a resistivity at operating temperatures such that its resistance, as derived from Ohm’s law, makes it electrically and structurally stable for the chosen power dissipation per meter, the length of the heater, and/or the maximum voltage allowed for the core material.

[0086] In some embodiments, core 214 is made of different materials along a length of insulated conductor 212. For example, a first section of core 214 may be made of a material that has a significantly lower resistance than a second section of the core. The first section may be placed adjacent to a formation layer that does not need to be heated to as high a temperature as a second formation layer that is adjacent to the second section. The resistivity of various sections of core 15

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD000213.tif" id="idf0013" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 214 may be adjusted by having a variable diameter and/or by having core sections made of different materials.

[0087] Electrical insulator 216 may be made of a variety of materials. Commonly used powders may include, but are not limited to, MgO, AI2O3, Zirconia, BeO, different chemical variations of Spinels, and combinations thereof. MgO may provide good thermal conductivity and electrical insulation properties. The desired electrical insulation properties include low leakage current and high dielectric strength. A low leakage current decreases the possibility of thermal breakdown and the high dielectric strength decreases the possibility of arcing across the insulator. Thermal breakdown can occur if the leakage current causes a progressive rise in the temperature of the insulator leading also to arcing across the insulator.

[0088] Jacket 218 may be an outer, metallic layer or electrically conductive layer. Jacket 218 may be in contact with hot formation fluids. Jacket 218 may be made of material having a high resistance to corrosion at elevated temperatures. Alloys that may be used in a desired operating temperature range of jacket 218 include, but are not limited to, 304 stainless steel, 310 stainless steel, Incoloy® 800, and Inconel® 600 (Inco Alloys International, Huntington, West Virginia, U.S.A.). The thickness of jacket 218 may have to be sufficient to last for three to ten years in a hot and corrosive environment. A thickness of jacket 218 may generally vary between about 1 mm and about 2.5 mm. For example, a 1.3 mm thick, 310 stainless steel outer layer may be used as jacket 218 to provide good chemical resistance to sulfidation corrosion in a heated zone of a formation for a period of over 3 years. Larger or smaller jacket thicknesses may be used to meet specific application requirements.

[0089] One or more insulated conductors may be placed within an opening in a formation to form a heat source or heat sources. Electrical current may be passed through each insulated conductor in the opening to heat the formation. Alternately, electrical current may be passed through selected insulated conductors in an opening. The unused conductors may be used as backup heaters. Insulated conductors may be electrically coupled to a power source in any convenient manner. Each end of an insulated conductor may be coupled to lead-in cables that pass through a wellhead. Such a configuration typically has a 180° bend (a “hairpin” bend) or turn located near a bottom of the heat source. An insulated conductor that includes a 180° bend or turn may not require a bottom termination, but the 180° bend or turn may be an electrical and/or structural weakness in the heater. Insulated conductors may be electrically coupled together in series, in parallel, or in series and parallel combinations. In some embodiments of heat sources, electrical current may pass into the conductor of an insulated conductor and may be returned through the jacket of the insulated conductor by connecting core 214 to jacket 218 (shown in FIG. 2) at the bottom of the heat source. 16 WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 [0090] In some embodiments, three insulated conductors 212 are electrically coupled in a 3-phase wye configuration to a power supply. FIG. 3 depicts an embodiment of three insulated conductors in an opening in a subsurface formation coupled in a wye configuration. FIG. 4 depicts an embodiment of three insulated conductors 212 that are removable from opening 220 in the formation. No bottom connection may be required for three insulated conductors in a wye configuration. Alternately, all three insulated conductors of the wye configuration may be connected together near the bottom of the opening. The connection may be made directly at ends of heating sections of the insulated conductors or at ends of cold pins (less resistive sections) coupled to the heating sections at the bottom of the insulated conductors. The bottom connections may be made with insulator filled and sealed canisters or with epoxy filled canisters. The insulator may be the same composition as the insulator used as the electrical insulation. [0091] Three insulated conductors 212 depicted in FIGS. 3 and 4 may be coupled to support member 222 using centralizers 224. Alternatively, insulated conductors 212 may be strapped directly to support member 222 using metal straps. Centralizers 224 may maintain a location and/or inhibit movement of insulated conductors 212 on support member 222. Centralizers 224 may be made of metal, ceramic, or combinations thereof. The metal may be stainless steel or any other type of metal able to withstand a corrosive and high temperature environment. In some embodiments, centralizers 224 are bowed metal strips welded to the support member at distances less than about 6 m. A ceramic used in centralizer 224 may be, but is not limited to, AI2O3,

MgO, or another electrical insulator. Centralizers 224 may maintain a location of insulated conductors 212 on support member 222 such that movement of insulated conductors is inhibited at operating temperatures of the insulated conductors. Insulated conductors 212 may also be somewhat flexible to withstand expansion of support member 222 during heating.

[0092] Support member 222, insulated conductor 212, and centralizers 224 may be placed in opening 220 in hydrocarbon layer 226. Insulated conductors 212 may be coupled to bottom conductor junction 228 using cold pin 230. Bottom conductor junction 228 may electrically couple each insulated conductor 212 to each other. Bottom conductor junction 228 may include materials that are electrically conducting and do not melt at temperatures found in opening 220. Cold pin 230 may be an insulated conductor having lower electrical resistance than insulated conductor 212.

[0093] Lead-in conductor 232 may be coupled to wellhead 234 to provide electrical power to insulated conductor 212. Lead-in conductor 232 may be made of a relatively low electrical resistance conductor such that relatively little heat is generated from electrical current passing through the lead-in conductor. In some embodiments, the lead-in conductor is a rubber or polymer insulated stranded copper wire. In some embodiments, the lead-in conductor is a 17 WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 mineral insulated conductor with a copper core. Lead-in conductor 232 may couple to wellhead 234 at surface 236 through a sealing flange located between overburden 238 and surface 236.

The sealing flange may inhibit fluid from escaping from opening 220 to surface 236.

[0094] In certain embodiments, lead-in conductor 232 is coupled to insulated conductor 212 using transition conductor 240. Transition conductor 240 may be a less resistive portion of insulated conductor 212. Transition conductor 240 may be referred to as “cold pin” of insulated conductor 212. Transition conductor 240 may be designed to dissipate about one-tenth to about one-fifth of the power per unit length as is dissipated in a unit length of the primary heating section of insulated conductor 212. Transition conductor 240 may typically be between about 1.5 m and about 15 m, although shorter or longer lengths may be used to accommodate specific application needs. In an embodiment, the conductor of transition conductor 240 is copper. The electrical insulator of transition conductor 240 may be the same type of electrical insulator used in the primary heating section. A jacket of transition conductor 240 may be made of corrosion resistant material.

[0095] In certain embodiments, transition conductor 240 is coupled to lead-in conductor 232 by a splice or other coupling joint. Splices may also be used to couple transition conductor 240 to insulated conductor 212. Splices may have to withstand a temperature equal to half of a target zone operating temperature. Density of electrical insulation in the splice should in many instances be high enough to withstand the required temperature and the operating voltage.

[0096] In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 3, packing material 242 is placed between overburden casing 244 and opening 220. In some embodiments, reinforcing material 246 may secure overburden casing 244 to overburden 238. Packing material 242 may inhibit fluid from flowing from opening 220 to surface 236. Reinforcing material 246 may include, for example, Class G or Class H Portland cement mixed with silica flour for improved high .temperature performance, slag or silica flour, and/or a mixture thereof. In some embodiments, reinforcing material 246 extends radially a width of from about 5 cm to about 25 cm.

[0097] As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, support member 222 and lead-in conductor 232 may be coupled to wellhead 234 at surface 236 of the formation. Surface conductor 248 may enclose reinforcing material 246 and couple to wellhead 234. Embodiments of surface conductors may extend to depths of approximately 3m to approximately 515 m into an opening in the formation. Alternatively, the surface conductor may extend to a depth of approximately 9 m into the formation. Electrical current may be supplied from a power source to insulated conductor 212 to generate heat due to the electrical resistance of the insulated conductor. Heat generated from three insulated conductors 212 may transfer within opening 220 to heat at least a portion of hydrocarbon layer 226. 18 WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 [0098] Heat generated by insulated conductors 212 may heat at least a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation. In some embodiments, heat is transferred to the formation substantially by radiation of the generated heat to the formation. Some heat may be transferred by conduction or convection of heat due to gases present in the opening. The opening may be an uncased opening, as shown in FIGS. 3 and 4. An uncased opening eliminates cost associated with thermally cementing the heater to the formation, costs associated with a casing, and/or costs of packing a heater within an opening. In addition, heat transfer by radiation is typically more efficient than by conduction, so the heaters may be operated at lower temperatures in an open wellbore. Conductive heat transfer during initial operation of a heat source may be enhanced by the addition of a gas in the opening. The gas may be maintained at a pressure up to about 27 bars absolute. The gas may include, but is not limited to, carbon dioxide and/or helium. An insulated conductor heater in an open wellbore may advantageously be free to expand or contract to accommodate thermal expansion and contraction. An insulated conductor heater may advantageously be removable or redeployable from an open wellbore.

[0099] In certain embodiments, an insulated conductor heater assembly is installed or removed using a spooling assembly. More than one spooling assembly may be used to install both the insulated conductor and a support member simultaneously. Alternatively, the support member may be installed using a coiled tubing unit. The heaters may be un-spooled and connected to the support as the support is inserted into the well. The electric heater and the support member may be un-spooled from the spooling assemblies. Spacers may be coupled to the support member and the heater along a length of the support member. Additional spooling assemblies may be used for additional electric heater elements.

[0100] Mineral insulated (MI) cables (insulated conductors) for use in subsurface applications, such as heating hydrocarbon containing formations in some applications, are longer, may have larger outside diameters, and may operate at higher voltages and temperatures than what is . typical in the MI cable industry. For these subsurface applications, the joining of multiple MI cables is needed to make MI cables with sufficient length to reach the depths and distances needed to heat the subsurface efficiently and to join segments with different functions, such as lead-in cables joined to heater sections. Such long heaters also require higher voltages to provide enough power to the farthest ends of the heaters.

[0101] Conventional MI cable splice designs are typically not suitable for voltages above 1000 volts, above 1500 volts, or above 2000 volts and may not operate for extended periods without failure at elevated temperatures, such as over 650 °C (about 1200 °F), over 700 °C (about 1290 °F), or over 800 °C (about 1470 °F). Such high voltage, high temperature applications typically 19

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD000214.tif" id="idf0014" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 require the compaction of the mineral insulant in the splice to be as close as possible to or above the level of compaction in the insulated conductor (MI cable) itself.

[0102] The relatively large outside diameter and long length of MI cables for some applications requires that the cables be spliced while oriented horizontally. There are splices for other applications of MI cables that have been fabricated horizontally. These techniques typically use a small hole through which the mineral insulation (such as magnesium oxide powder) is filled into the splice and compacted slightly through vibration and tamping. Such methods do not provide sufficient compaction of the mineral insulation or even, in some cases, allow any compaction of the mineral insulation, and, thus may not be suitable for making splices for use at the high voltages needed for these subsurface applications.

[0103] Thus, there is a need for splices of insulated conductors that are simple yet can operate at the high voltages and temperatures in the subsurface environment over long durations without failure. In addition, the splices may need higher bending and tensile strengths to inhibit failure of the splice under the weight loads and temperatures that the cables can be subjected to in the subsurface. Techniques and methods also may be utilized to reduce electric field intensities in the splices to reduce leakage currents in the splices and to increase the margin between the operating voltage and electrical breakdown. Reducing electric field intensities may help increase voltage and temperature operating ranges of the splices.

[0104] FIG. 5 depicts a side view cross-sectional representation of one embodiment of a fitting for joining insulated conductors. Fitting 250 is a splice or coupling joint for joining insulated conductors 212A, 212B. In certain embodiments, fitting 250 includes sleeve 252 and housings 254A, 254B. Housings 254A, 254B may be splice housings, coupling joint housings, or coupler housings. Sleeve 252 and housings 254A, 254B may be made of mechanically strong, electrically conductive materials such as, but not limited to, stainless steel. Sleeve 252 and housings 254A, 254B may be cylindrically shaped or polygon shaped. Sleeve 252 and housings 254A, 254B may have rounded edges, tapered diameter changes, other features, or combinations thereof, which reduce electric field intensities in fitting 250.

[0105] Fitting 250 may be used to couple (splice) insulated conductor 212A to insulated conductor 212B while maintaining the mechanical and electrical integrity of the jackets (sheaths), insulation, and cores (conductors) of the insulated conductors. Fitting 250 may be used to couple heat producing insulated conductors with non-heat producing insulated conductors, to couple heat producing insulated conductors with other heat producing insulated conductors, or to couple non-heat producing insulated conductors with other non-heat producing insulated conductors. In some embodiments, more than one fitting 250 is used to couple multiple 20

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD000215.tif" id="idf0015" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 heat producing and non-heat producing insulated conductors to provide a long insulated conductor.

[0106] Fitting 250 may be used to couple insulated conductors with different diameters, as shown in FIG. 5. For example, the insulated conductors may have different core (conductor) diameters, different jacket (sheath) diameters, or combinations of different diameters. Fitting 250 may also be used to couple insulated conductors with different metallurgies, different types of insulation, or combinations thereof.

[0107] As shown in FIG. 5, housing 254A is coupled to jacket (sheath) 218A of insulated conductor 212A and housing 254B is coupled to jacket 218B of insulated conductor 212B. In certain embodiments, housings 254A, 25 4B are welded, brazed, or otherwise permanently affixed to insulated conductors 212A, 212B. In some embodiments, housings 254A, 254B are temporarily or semi-permanently affixed to j ackets 218A, 218B of insulated conductors 212A, 212B (for example, coupled using threads or adhesives). Fitting 250 may be centered between the end portions of the insulated conductors 212A, 212B.

[0108] In certain embodiments, the interior volumes of sleeve 252 and housings 254A, 254B are substantially filled with electrically insulating material 256. In certain embodiments, “substantially filled” refers to entirely or almost entirely filling the volume or volumes with electrically insulating material with substantially no macroscopic voids in the volume or volumes. For example, substantially filled may refer to filling almost the entire volume with electrically insulating material that has some porosity because of microscopic voids (for example, up to about 40% porosity). Electrically insulating material 256 may include magnesium oxide, talc, ceramic powders (for example, boron nitride), a mixture of magnesium oxide and another electrical insulator (for example, up to about 50% by weight boron nitride), ceramic cement, mixtures of ceramic powders with certain non-ceramic materials (such as tungsten sulfide (WS2)), or mixtures thereof. For example, magnesium oxide may be mixed with boron nitride or another electrical insulator to improve the ability of the electrically insulating material to flow, to improve the dielectric characteristics of the electrically insulating material, or to improve the flexibility of the fitting. In some embodiments, electrically insulating material 256 is material similar to electrical insulation used inside of at least one of insulated conductors 212A, 212B. Electrically insulating material 256 may have substantially similar dielectric characteristics to electrical insulation used inside of at least one of insulated conductors 212A, 212B.

[0109] In certain embodiments, first sleeve 252 and housings 254A, 254B are made up (for example, put together or manufactured) buried or submerged in electrically insulating material 256. Making up sleeve 252 and housings 254A, 254B buried in electrically insulating material 256 inhibits open space from forming in the interior volumes of the portions. Sleeve 252 and 21

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD000216.tif" id="idf0016" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 housings 254A, 254B have open ends to allow insulated conductors 212A, 212B to pass through.

These open ends may be sized to have diameters slightly larger than the outside diameter of the jackets of the insulated conductors.

[0110] In certain embodiments, cores 214A, 214B of insulated conductors 212A, 212B are joined together at coupling 258. The jackets and insulation of insulated conductors 212A, 212B may be cut back or stripped to expose desired lengths of cores 214A, 214B before joining the cores. Coupling 258 may be located in electrically insulating material 256 inside sleeve 252. [0111] Coupling 258 may join cores 214A, 214B together, for example, by compression, crimping, brazing, welding, or other techniques known in the art. In some embodiments, core 214A is made of different material than core 214B. For example, core 214A may be copper while core 214B is stainless steel, carbon steel, or Alloy 180. In such embodiments, special methods may have to be used to weld the cores together. For example, the tensile strength properties and/or yield strength properties of the cores may have to be matched closely such that the coupling between the cores does not degrade over time or with use.

[0112] In some embodiments, a copper core may be work-hardened before joining the core to carbon steel or Alloy 180. In some embodiments, the cores are coupled by in-line welding using filler material (for example, filler metal) between the cores of different materials. For example, Monel® (Special Metals Corporation, New Hartford, NY, U.S.A.) nickel alloys may be used as filler material. In some embodiments, copper cores are buttered (melted and mixed) with the filler material before the welding process.

[0113] In an embodiment, insulated conductors 212A, 212B are coupled using fitting 250 by first sliding housing 254A over jacket 218A of insulated conductor 212A and, second, sliding housing 254B over jacket 218B of insulated conductor 212B. The housings are slid over the jackets with the large diameter ends of the housings facing the ends of the insulated conductors. Sleeve 252 may be slid over insulated conductor 212B such that it is adjacent to housing 254B. Cores 214A, 214B are joined at coupling 258 to create a robust electrical and mechanical connection between the cores. The small diameter end of housing 254A is joined (for example, welded) to jacket 218A of insulated conductor 212A. Sleeve 252 and housing 254B are brought (moved or pushed) together with housing 254A to form fitting 250. The interior volume of fitting 250 may be substantially filled with electrically insulating material while the sleeve and the housings are brought together. The interior volume of the combined sleeve and housings is reduced such that the electrically insulating material substantially filling the entire interior volume is compacted. Sleeve 252 is joined to housing 254B and housing 254B is joined to jacket 218B of insulated conductor 212B. The volume of sleeve 252 may be further reduced, if additional compaction is desired. 22 WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 [0114] In certain embodiments, the interior volumes of housings 254A, 254B filled with electrically insulating material 256 have tapered shapes. The diameter of the interior volumes of housings 254A, 254B may taper from a smaller diameter at or near the ends of the housings coupled to insulated conductors 212A, 212B to a larger diameter at or near the ends of the housings located inside sleeve 252 (the ends of the housings facing each other or the ends of the housings facing the ends of the insulated conductors). The tapered shapes of the interior volumes may reduce electric field intensities in fitting 250. Reducing electric field intensities in fitting 250 may reduce leakage currents in the fitting at increased operating voltages and temperatures, and may increase the margin to electrical breakdown. Thus, reducing electric field intensities in fitting 250 may increase the range of operating voltages and temperatures for the fitting.

[0115] In some embodiments, the insulation from insulated conductors 212A, 212B tapers from jackets 218A, 218B down to cores 214A, 214B in the direction toward the center of fitting 250 in the event that the electrically insulating material 256 is a weaker dielectric than the insulation in the insulated conductors. In some embodiments, the insulation from insulated conductors 212A, 212B tapers from jackets 218A, 218B down to cores 214A, 214B in the direction toward the insulated conductors in the event that electrically insulating material 256 is a stronger dielectric than the insulation in the insulated conductors. Tapering the insulation from the insulated conductors reduces the intensity of electric fields at the interfaces between the insulation in the insulated conductors and the electrically insulating material within the fitting.

[0116] FIG. 6 depicts a tool that may be used to cut away part of the inside of insulated conductors 212A, 212B (for example, electrical insulation inside the jacket of the insulated conductor). Cutting tool 260 may include cutting teeth 262 and drive tube 264. Drive tube 264 may be coupled to the body of cutting tool 260 using, for example, a weld or a braze. In some embodiments, no cutting tool is needed to cut away electrical insulation from inside the jacket. [0117] Sleeve 252 and housings 254A, 254B may be coupled together using any means known in the art such as brazing, welding, or crimping. In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 7, sleeve 252 and housings 254A, 254B have threads that engage to couple the pieces together.

[0118] As shown in FIGS. 5 and 7, in certain embodiments, electrically insulating material 256 is compacted during the assembly process. The force to press the housings 254A, 254B toward each other may put a pressure on electrically insulating material 256 of, for example, at least 25,000 pounds per square inch up to 55,000 pounds per square inch in order to provide acceptable compaction of the insulating material. The tapered shapes of the interior volumes of housings 254A, 254B and the make-up of electrically insulating material 256 may enhance compaction of the electrically insulating material during the assembly process to the point where the dielectric characteristics of the electrically insulating material are, to the extent practical, 23

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD000217.tif" id="idf0017" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 comparable to that within insulated conductors 212A, 212B. Methods and devices to facilitate compaction include, but are not limited to, mechanical methods (such as shown in FIG. 10), pneumatic, hydraulic (such as shown in FIGS. 11 and 12), swaged, or combinations thereof. [0119] The combination of moving the pieces together with force and the housings having the tapered interior volumes compacts electrically insulating material 256 using both axial and radial compression. Both axial and radial compressing electrically insulating material 256 provides more uniform compaction of the electrically insulating material. In some embodiments, vibration and/or tamping of electrically insulating material 256 may also be used to consolidate the electrically insulating material. Vibration (and/or tamping) may be applied either at the same time as application of force to push the housings 254A, 254B together, or vibration (and/or tamping) may be alternated with application of such force. Vibration and/or tamping may reduce bridging of particles in electrically insulating material 256.

[0120] In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 7, electrically insulating material 256 inside housings 254A, 254B is compressed mechanically by tightening nuts 266 against ferrules 268 coupled to jackets 218A, 218B. The mechanical method compacts the interior volumes of housings 254A, 254B because of the tapered shape of the interior volumes. Ferrules 268 may be copper or other soft metal ferrules. Nuts 266 may be stainless steel or other hard metal nut that is movable on jackets 218A, 218B. Nuts 266 may engage threads on housings 254A, 254B to couple to the housings. As nuts 266 are threaded onto housings 254A, 254B, nuts 266 and ferrules 268 work to compress the interior volumes of the housings. In some embodiments, nuts 266 and ferrules 268 may work to move housings 254A, 254B further onto sleeve 252 (using the threaded coupling between the pieces) and compact the interior volume of the sleeve. In some embodiments, housings 254A, 254B and sleeve 252 are coupled together using the threaded coupling before the nut and ferrule are swaged down on the second portion. As the interior volumes inside housings 254A, 254B are compressed, the interior volume inside sleeve 252 may also be compressed. In some embodiments, nuts 266 and ferrules 268 may act to couple housings 254A, 254B to insulated conductors 212A, 212B.

[0121] In certain embodiments, multiple insulated conductors are spliced together in an end fitting. For example, three insulated conductors may be spliced together in an end fitting to couple electrically the insulated conductors in a 3-phase wye configuration. FIG. 8A depicts a side view of a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of threaded fitting 270 for coupling three insulated conductors 212A, 212B, 212C. FIG. 8B depicts a side view of a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of welded fitting 270 for coupling three insulated conductors 212A, 212B, 212C. As shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B, insulated conductors 212A, 24

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD000218.tif" id="idf0018" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 212B, 212C may be coupled to fitting 270 through end cap 272. End cap 272 may include three strain relief fittings 274 through which insulated conductors 212A, 212B, 212C pass.

[0122] Cores 214A, 214B, 214C of the insulated conductors may be coupled together at coupling 258. Coupling 258 may be, for example, a braze (such as a silver braze or copper braze), a welded joint, or a crimped joint. Coupling cores 214A, 214B, 214C at coupling 258 electrically join the three insulated conductors for use in a 3-phase wye configuration.

[0123] As shown in FIG. 8A, end cap 272 may be coupled to main body 276 of fitting 270 using threads. Threading of end cap 272 and main body 276 may allow the end cap to compact electrically insulating material 256 inside the main body. At the end of main body 276 opposite of end cap 272 is cover 278. Cover 278 may also be attached to main body 276 by threads. In certain embodiments, compaction of electrically insulating material 256 in fitting 270 is enhanced through tightening of cover 278 into main body 276, by crimping of the main body after attachment of the cover, or a combination of these methods.

[0124] As shown in FIG. 8B, end cap 272 may be coupled to main body 276 of fitting 270 using welding, brazing, or crimping. End cap 272 may be pushed or pressed into main body 276 to compact electrically insulating material 256 inside the main body. Cover 278 may also be attached to main body 276 by welding, brazing, or crimping. Cover 278 may be pushed or pressed into main body 276 to compact electrically insulating material 256 inside the main body. Crimping of the main body after attachment of the cover may further enhance compaction of electrically insulating material 256 in fitting 270.

[0125] In some embodiments, as shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B, plugs 280 close openings or holes in cover 278. For example, the plugs may be threaded, welded, or brazed into openings in cover 278. The openings in cover 278 may allow electrically insulating material 256 to be provided inside fitting 270 when cover 278 and end cap 272 are coupled to main body 276. The openings in cover 278 may be plugged or covered after electrically insulating material 256 is provided inside fitting 270. In some embodiments, openings are located on main body 276 of fitting 270. Openings on main body 276 may be plugged with plugs 280 or other plugs.

[0126] In some embodiments, cover 278 includes one or more pins. In some embodiments, the pins are or are part of plugs 280. The pins may engage a torque tool that turns cover 278 and tightens the cover on main body 276. An example of torque tool 282 that may engage the pins is depicted in FIG. 9. Torque tool 282 may have an inside diameter that substantially matches the outside diameter of cover 278 (depicted in FIG. 8A). As shown in FIG. 9, torque tool 282 may have slots or other depressions that are shaped to engage the pins on cover 278. Torque tool 282 may include recess 284. Recess 284 may be a square drive recess or other shaped recess that allows operation (turning) of the torque tool. 25

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD000219.tif" id="idf0019" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 [0127] FIG. 10 depicts an embodiment of clamp assemblies 286A,B that may be used to mechanically compact fitting 250. Clamp assemblies 286A,B may be shaped to secure fitting 250 in place at the shoulders of housings 254A, 254B. Threaded rods 288 may pass through holes 290 of clamp assemblies 286A,B· Nuts 292, along with washers, on each of threaded rods 288 may be used to apply force on the outside faces of each clamp assembly and bring the clamp assemblies together such that compressive forces are applied to housings 254A, 254B of fitting 250. These compressive forces compact electrically insulating material inside fitting 250.

[0128] In some embodiments, clamp assemblies 286 are used in hydraulic, pneumatic, or other compaction methods. FIG. 11 depicts an exploded view of an embodiment of hydraulic compaction machine 294. FIG. 12 depicts a representation of an embodiment of assembled hydraulic compaction machine 294. As shown in FIGS. 11 and 12, clamp assemblies 286 may be used to secure fitting 250 (depicted, for example, in FIG. 5) in place with insulated conductors coupled to the fitting. At least one clamp assembly (for example, clamp assembly 286A) may be moveable together to compact the fitting in the axial direction. Power unit 296, shown in FIG. 11, may be used to power compaction machine 294.

[0129] FIG. 13 depicts an embodiment of fitting 250 and insulated conductors 212A, 212B secured in clamp assembly 286A and clamp assembly 286B before compaction of the fitting and insulated conductors. As shown in FIG. 13, the cores of insulated conductors 212A, 212B are coupled using coupling 258 at or near the center of sleeve 252. Sleeve 252 is slid over housing 254A, which is coupled to insulated conductor 212A. Sleeve 252 and housing 254A are secured in fixed (non-moving) clamp assembly 286B. Insulated conductor 212B passes through housing 254B and movable clamp assembly 286A. Insulated conductor 212B may be secured by another clamp assembly fixed relative to clamp assembly 286B (not shown). Clamp assembly 286A may be moved towards clamp assembly 286B to couple housing 254B to sleeve 252 and compact electrically insulating material inside the housings and the sleeve. Interfaces between insulated conductor 212A and housing 254A, between housing 254A and sleeve 252, between sleeve 252 and housing 254B, and between housing 254B and insulated conductor 212B may then be coupled by welding, brazing, or other techniques known in the art.

[0130] The fittings depicted herein (such as fitting 250, depicted in FIGS. 5 and 7, and fitting 270, depicted in FIG. 8) may form robust electrical and mechanical connections between insulated conductors. For example, fittings depicted herein may be suitable for extended operation at voltages above 1000 volts, above 1500 volts, or above 2000 volts and temperatures of at least about 650 °C, at least about 700 °C, at least about 800 °C.

[0131] In certain embodiments, the fittings depicted herein couple insulated conductors used for heating (for example, insulated conductors located in a hydrocarbon containing layer) to 26

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD000220.tif" id="idf0020" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 insulated conductors not used for heating (for example, insulated conductors used in overburden sections of the formation). The heating insulated conductor may have a smaller core and different material core than the non-heating insulated conductor. For example, the core of the heating insulated conductor may be a copper-nickel alloy, stainless steel, or carbon steel while the core of the non-heating insulated conductor may be copper. Because of the difference in sizes and electrical properties of materials of the cores, however, the electrical insulation in the sections may have sufficiently different thicknesses that cannot be compensated in a single fitting joining the insulated conductors. Thus, in some embodiments, a short section of intermediate heating insulated conductor may be used in between the heating insulated conductor and the nonheating insulated conductor.

[0132] The intermediate heating insulated conductor may have a core diameter that tapers from the core diameter of the non-heating insulated conductor to the core diameter of the heating insulated conductor while using core material similar to the non-heating insulated conductor. For example, the intermediate heating insulated conductor may be copper with a core diameter that tapers to the same diameter as the heating insulated conductor. Thus, the thickness of the electrical insulation at the fitting coupling the intermediate insulated conductor and the heating insulated conductor is similar to the thickness of the electrical insulation in the heating insulated conductor. Having the same thickness allows the insulated conductors to be easily joined in the fitting. The intermediate heating insulated conductor may provide some voltage drop and some heating losses because of the smaller core diameter, however, the intermediate heating insulated conductor may be relatively short in length such that these losses are minimal.

Examples [0133] Non-restrictive examples are set forth below.

Samples using fitting embodiment depicted in FIG. 5 [0134] Samples using an embodiment of fitting 250 similar to the embodiment depicted in FIG. 5 were fabricated using a hydraulic compaction machine with a medium voltage insulated conductor suitable for use as a subsurface heater on one side of the fitting and a medium voltage insulated conductor suitable for use as an overburden cable on the other side of the fitting. Magnesium oxide was used as the electrically insulating material in the fittings. The samples were 6 feet long from the end of one mineral insulated conductor to the other. Prior to electrical testing, the samples were placed in a 6-1/2 ft long oven and dried at 850 °F for 30 hours. Upon cooling to 150 °F, the ends of the mineral insulated conductors were sealed using epoxy. The samples were then placed in an oven 3 feet long to heat up the samples and voltage was applied to the samples using a 5 kV (max) hipot (high potential) tester, which was able to measure both total and real components of the leakage current. Three thermocouples were placed on the 27

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD000221.tif" id="idf0021" />

WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 samples and averaged for temperature measurement. The samples were placed in the oven with the fitting at the center of the oven. Ambient DC (direct current) responses and AC (alternating current) leakage currents were measured using the hipot tester.

[0135] A total of eight samples were tested at about 1000 °F and voltages up to 5 kV. One individual sample tested at 5 kV had a leakage current of 2.28 mA, and another had a leakage current of 6.16 mA. Three more samples with cores connected together in parallel were tested to 5 kV and had an aggregate leakage current of 11.7 mA, or 3.9 mA average leakage current per cable, and the three samples were stable. Three other samples with cores connected together in parallel were tested to 4.4 kV and had an aggregate leakage current of 4.39 mA, but they could not withstand a higher voltage without tripping the hipot tester (which occurs when leakage current exceeds 40 mA). One of the samples tested to 5 kV underwent further testing at ambient temperature to breakdown. Breakdown occurred at 11 kV.

[0136] A total of eleven more samples were fabricated for additional breakdown testing at ambient temperature. Three of the samples had insulated conductors prepared with the mineral insulation cut perpendicular to the jacket while the eight other samples had insulated conductors prepared with the mineral insulation cut at a 30° angle to the jacket. Of the first three samples with the perpendicular cut, the first sample withstood up to 10.5 kV before breakdown, the second sample withstood up to 8 kV before breakdown, while the third sample withstood only 500 V before breakdown, which suggested a flaw in fabrication of the third sample. Of the eight samples with the 30° cut, two samples withstood up to 10 kV before breakdown, three samples withstood between 8 kV and 9.5 kV before breakdown, and three samples withstood no voltage or less than 750 V, which suggested flaws in fabrication of these three samples.

Samples using fitting embodiment depicted in FIG. 8B

[0137] Three samples using an embodiment of fitting 270 similar to the embodiment depicted in FIG. 8B were made. The samples were made with two insulated conductors instead of three and were tested to breakdown at ambient temperature. One sample withstood 5 kV before breakdown, a second sample withstood 4.5 kV before breakdown, and a third sample could withstand only 500 V, which suggested a flaw in fabrication.

[0138] It is to be understood the invention is not limited to particular systems described which may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting. As used in this specification, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the content clearly indicates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a core” includes a combination of two or more cores and reference to “a material” includes mixtures of materials. 28 WO 2011/044487 PCT/US2010/052022 [0139] Further modifications and alternative embodiments of various aspects of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art in view of this description. Accordingly, this description is to be construed as illustrative only and is for the purpose of teaching those skilled in the art the general manner of carrying out the invention. It is to be understood that the forms of the invention shown and described herein are to be taken as the presently preferred embodiments. Elements and materials may be substituted for those illustrated and described herein, parts and processes may be reversed, and certain features of the invention may be utilized independently, all as would be apparent to one skilled in the art after having the benefit of this description of the invention. Changes may be made in the elements described herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as described in the following claims. 29 □’Ewan pp^a , crnxan ;w:n ατα inia^a pnow pnszn irn nr -jaoa ,ρνιη pxan paoana ma™ na^maa np’ioa .zrtwan rwaa mp’pan ρ-ίΛ axnria ......r. Geo&lt;su«r □innn Pi? »*···»· · ·* sw ***** ♦ *·*' '♦·"* · ·· CD Apt 212 0? 35; 1040300 .(mcna nannn) cras&amp;amp;’an nwa

<img img-format="tif" img-content="drawing" file="IL218879AD000222.tif" id="idf0022" />