Microelectromechanical device with optical function separated from mechanical and electrical function

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

0001This application is a continuation-in-part of <patcit id="pcit0001" dnum="US11273405A"><text>U.S. Patent Application No. 11/112,734, filed April 22, 2005</text></patcit>, which claims the benefit of <patcit id="pcit0002" dnum="US61348604P"><text>U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/613,486, filed September 27, 2004</text></patcit>, and <patcit id="pcit0003" dnum="US61349904P"><text>U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/613,499, filed September 27, 2004</text></patcit>, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND

0002Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) include micro mechanical elements, actuators, and electronics. Micromechanical elements may be created using deposition, etching, and/or other micromachining processes that etch away parts of substrates and/or deposited material layers or that add layers to form electrical and electromechanical devices. One type of MEMS device is called an interferometric modulator. As used herein, the term interferometric modulator or interferometric light modulator refers to a device that selectively absorbs and/or reflects light using the principles of optical interference. In certain embodiments, an interferometric modulator may comprise a pair of conductive plates, one or both of which may be transparent and/or reflective in whole or part and capable of relative motion upon application of an appropriate electrical signal. In a particular embodiment, one plate may comprise a stationary layer deposited on a substrate, the other plate may comprise a metallic membrane separated from the stationary layer by an air gap. As described herein in more detail, the position of one plate in relation to another can change the optical interference of light incident on the interferometric modulator. Such devices have a wide range of applications, and it would be beneficial in the art to utilize and/or modify the characteristics of these types of devices so that their features can be exploited in improving existing products and creating new products that have not yet been developed.

SUMMARY

0003The system, method, and devices of the invention each have several aspects, no single one of which is solely responsible for its desirable attributes. Without limiting the scope of this invention, its more prominent features will now be discussed briefly. After considering this discussion, and particularly after reading the section entitled "Detailed Description of Preferred Embodiments" one will understand how the features of this invention provide advantages over other display devices.

0004In certain embodiments, a microelectromechanical (MEMS) device comprises a substrate, a movable element over the substrate, and an actuation electrode above the movable element. The movable element comprises a deformable layer and a reflective element. The deformable layer is spaced from the reflective element.

0005In certain embodiments, a microelectromechanical (MEMS) device comprises means for moving a portion of the device, means for supporting moving means, and means for actuating the moving means. The actuating means is above the moving means. The moving means comprises means for deforming and means for reflecting. The deforming means is spaced from the reflecting means.

0006In certain embodiments, a method of manufacturing a microelectromechanical (MEMS) device comprises forming a first sacrificial layer over a substrate, forming a reflective element over the first sacrificial layer, forming a second sacrificial layer over the reflective element, forming a deformable layer over the second sacrificial layer, forming a third sacrificial layer over the deformable layer, forming an actuation electrode over the third sacrificial layer, and removing the first, second, and third sacrificial layers. The deformable layer is mechanically coupled to the reflective element.

0007In certain embodiments, a method of modulating light comprises providing a display element comprising a substrate, a movable element over the substrate, and an actuation electrode. The movable element comrpises a deformable layer and a reflective element. The deformable layer is spaced from the reflective element. The actuation electrode is above the movable element. The method further comprises applying a voltage to the actuation electrode. The voltage generates an attractive force on the movable element, thereby causing the movable element to move away from the substrate.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

0008<figref idref="f0001">FIG. 1</figref> is an isometric view depicting a portion of one embodiment of an interferometric modulator display in which a movable reflective layer of a first interferometric modulator is in a released position and a movable reflective layer of a second interferometric modulator is in an actuated position.

0009<figref idref="f0002">FIG. 2</figref> is a system block diagram illustrating one embodiment of an electronic device incorporating a 3×3 interferometric modulator display.

0010<figref idref="f0003">FIG. 3</figref> is a diagram of movable mirror position versus applied voltage for one exemplary embodiment of an interferometric modulator of <figref idref="f0001">FIG. 1</figref>.

0011<figref idref="f0003">FIG. 4</figref> is an illustration of a set of row and column voltages that may be used to drive an interferometric modulator display.

0012<figref idref="f0004">FIG. 5A</figref> illustrates one exemplary frame of display data in the 3x3 interferometric modulator display of <figref idref="f0002">FIG. 2</figref>.

0013<figref idref="f0004">FIG. 5B</figref> illustrates one exemplary timing diagram for row and column signals that may be used to write the frame of <figref idref="f0004">FIG. 5A</figref>.

0014<figref idref="f0005">FIGS. 6A and 6B</figref> are system block diagrams illustrating an embodiment of a visual display device comprising a plurality of interferometric modulators.

0015<figref idref="f0006">FIG. 7A</figref> is a cross section of the device of <figref idref="f0001">FIG. 1</figref>.

0016<figref idref="f0006">FIG. 7B</figref> is a cross section of an alternative embodiment of an interferometric modulator.

0017<figref idref="f0006">FIG. 7C</figref> is a cross section of another alternative embodiment of an interferometric modulator.

0018<figref idref="f0007">FIG. 7D</figref> is a cross section of yet another alternative embodiment of an interferometric modulator.

0019<figref idref="f0007">FIG. 7E</figref> is a cross section of an additional alternative embodiment of an interferometric modulator.

0020<figref idref="f0008">FIG. 8</figref> is a side cross-sectional view of an example interferometric modulator that illustrates the spectral characteristics of produced light.

0021<figref idref="f0009">FIG. 9</figref> is a graphical illustration of reflectivity versus wavelength for mirrors of several example interferometric modulators.

0022<figref idref="f0009">FIG. 10</figref> is a chromaticity diagram that illustrates the colors that can be produced by a color display that includes example sets of red, green, and blue interferometric modulators.

0023<figref idref="f0010">FIG. 11</figref> is a side cross-sectional view of an example multistate interferometric modulator.

0024<figref idref="f0011">FIG. 12A-12C</figref> are side cross-sectional views of another example multistate interferometric modulator.

0025<figref idref="f0012">FIG. 13A</figref> is a cross-sectional view of an example embodiment of a MEMS device having the optical function separated from the electrical function and the mechanical function.

0026<figref idref="f0012">FIG. 13B</figref> is a cross-sectional view of the MEMS device of <figref idref="f0012">FIG. 13A</figref> in an actuated state.

0027<figref idref="f0012">FIG. 13C</figref> is a cross-sectional view of another example embodiment of a MEMS device having the optical function separated from the electrical function and the mechanical function.

0028<figref idref="f0013">FIG. 14A</figref> is a cross-sectional view of yet another example embodiment of a MEMS device having the optical function separated from the electrical function and the mechanical function.

0029<figref idref="f0013">FIGS. 14B and 14C</figref> are cross-sectional views of the MEMS devices of <figref idref="f0013">FIG. 14A</figref> in actuated states.

0030<figref idref="f0014">FIGS. 15A and 15B</figref> are blown up cross-sectional views of embodiments of actuation electrodes for a MEMS device having the optical function separated from the electrical function and the mechanical function.

0031<figref idref="f0015">FIG. 16A</figref> is a cross-sectional view of still another example embodiment of a MEMS device having the optical function separated from the electrical function and the mechanical function.

0032<figref idref="f0015">FIGS. 16B and 16C</figref> are cross-sectional views of the MEMS devices of <figref idref="f0015">FIG. 16A</figref> in actuated states.

0033<figref idref="f0016 f0017 f0018">FIGS. 17A-17H</figref> schematically illustrate an example series of processing steps for forming an embodiment of a MEMS device having the optical function separated from the electrical function and the mechanical function.

0034<figref idref="f0019 f0020 f0021">FIGS. 18A-18G</figref> schematically illustrate an example series of processing steps for forming another embodiment of a MEMS device having the optical function separated from the electrical function and the mechanical function.

0035<figref idref="f0022 f0023">FIGS. 19A-19D</figref> schematically illustrate an example series of processing steps for forming yet another embodiment of a MEMS device having the optical function separated from the electrical function and the mechanical function.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN EMBODIMENTS

0036The following detailed description is directed to certain specific embodiments of the invention. However, the invention can be embodied in a multitude of different ways. In this description, reference is made to the drawings wherein like parts are designated with like numerals throughout. As will be apparent from the following description, the embodiments may be implemented in any device that is configured to display an image, whether in motion (e.g., video) or stationary (e.g., still image), and whether textual or pictorial. More particularly, it is contemplated that the embodiments may be implemented in or associated with a variety of electronic devices such as, but not limited to, mobile telephones, wireless devices, personal data assistants (PDAs), hand-held or portable computers, GPS receivers/navigators, cameras, MP3 players, camcorders, game consoles, wrist watches, clocks, calculators, television monitors, flat panel displays, computer monitors, auto displays (e.g., odometer display, etc.), cockpit controls and/or displays, display of camera views (e.g., display of a rear view camera in a vehicle), electronic photographs, electronic billboards or signs, projectors, architectural structures, packaging, and aesthetic structures (e.g., display of images on a piece of jewelry). MEMS devices of similar structure to those described herein can also be used in non-display applications such as in electronic switching devices. Moreover, all figures herein have been drawn to depict the relationships between certain elements, and therefore are highly diagrammatic and should not be considered to be to scale.

0037In certain embodiments, an actuation electrode disposed above the reflective element and the deformable layer of a movable element is provided. The actuation electrode is not in the optical path, which allows it to comprise a non-transparent conductor and to be thicker, thereby improving power consumption. In some embodiments, the deformable layer, rather than the reflective surface, contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device upon actuation, which reduces, in turn, stiction, spring constant, electrostatic force, and capacitor area, thus enabling fast and low power operation. In some embodiments, surface roughening and other anti-stiction features may be formed between the actuation electrode and the deformable layer without impacting optical performance because the features are not in the optical path. In some embodiments, the reflective surface does not contact anything upon actuation, allowing it to be substantially smooth and flat without the danger of stiction. In some embodiments, a second actuation electrode is provided below the movable element or between the deformable layer and the reflective surface such that the reflective surface is stable in at least three states.

0038One interferometric modulator display embodiment comprising an interferometric MEMS display element is illustrated in <figref idref="f0001">FIG. 1</figref>. In these devices, the pixels are in either a bright or dark state. In the bright ("on" or "open") state, the display element reflects a large portion of incident visible light to a user. When in the dark ("off" or "closed") state, the display element reflects little incident visible light to the user. Depending on the embodiment, the light reflectance properties of the "on" and "off" states may be reversed. MEMS pixels can be configured to reflect predominantly at selected colors, allowing for a color display in addition to black and white.

0039<figref idref="f0001">FIG. 1</figref> is an isometric view depicting two adjacent pixels in a series of pixels of a visual display, wherein each pixel comprises a MEMS interferometric modulator. In some embodiments, an interferometric modulator display comprises a row/column array of these interferometric modulators. Each interferometric modulator includes a pair of reflective layers positioned at a variable and controllable distance from each other to form a resonant optical cavity with at least one variable dimension. In one embodiment, one of the reflective layers may be moved between two positions. In the first position, referred to herein as the relaxed position, the movable reflective layer is positioned at a relatively large distance from a fixed partially reflective layer. In the second position, referred to herein as the actuated position, the movable reflective layer is positioned more closely adjacent to the partially reflective layer. Incident light that reflects from the two layers interferes constructively or destructively depending on the position of the movable reflective layer, producing either an overall reflective or non-reflective state for each pixel.

0040The depicted portion of the pixel array in <figref idref="f0001">FIG. 1</figref> includes two adjacent interferometric modulators 12a and 12b. In the interferometric modulator 12a on the left, a movable reflective layer 14a is illustrated in a relaxed position at a predetermined distance from an optical stack 16a, which includes a partially reflective layer. In the interferometric modulator 12b on the right, the movable reflective layer 14b is illustrated in an actuated position adjacent to the optical stack 16b.

0041The optical stacks 16a and 16b (collectively referred to as the optical stack 16), as referenced herein, typically comprise several fused layers, which can include an electrode layer, such as indium tin oxide (ITO), a partially reflective layer, such as chromium, and a transparent dielectric. The optical stack 16 is thus electrically conductive, partially transparent, and partially reflective, and may be fabricated, for example, by depositing one or more layers of the above layers onto a transparent substrate 20. The partially reflective layer can be formed from a variety of materials that are partially reflective such as various metals, semiconductors, and dielectrics. The partially reflective layer can be formed of one or more layers of materials, and each of the layers can be formed of a single material or a combination of materials.

0042In some embodiments, the layers of the optical stack 16 are patterned into parallel strips, and may form row electrodes in a display device as described further below. The movable reflective layers 14a, 14b may be formed as a series of parallel strips of a deposited metal layer or layers (orthogonal to the row electrodes of 16a, 16b) deposited on top of posts 18 and an intervening sacrificial material deposited between the posts 18. When the sacrificial material is etched away, the deformable metal layers 14a, 14b are separated from the optical stacks 16a, 16b by a defined air gap 19. A highly conductive and reflective material such as aluminum may be used for the reflective layers 14, and these strips may form column electrodes in a display device.

0043With no applied voltage, the gap 19 remains between the movable reflective layer 14a and optical stack 16a, with the movable reflective layer 14a in a mechanically relaxed state, as illustrated by the pixel 12a in <figref idref="f0001">FIG. 1</figref>. However, when a potential difference is applied to a selected row and column, the capacitor formed at the intersection of the row and column electrodes at the corresponding pixel becomes charged, and electrostatic forces pull the electrodes together. If the voltage is high enough, the movable reflective layer 14 is deformed and is forced against the optical stack 16. A dielectric layer (not illustrated in this Figure) within the optical stack 16 may prevent shorting and control the separation distance between layers 14 and 16, as illustrated by the pixel 12b on the right in <figref idref="f0001">FIG. 1</figref>. The behavior is the same regardless of the polarity of the applied potential difference. In this way, row/column actuation that can control the reflective vs. non-reflective pixel states is analogous in many ways to that used in conventional LCD and other display technologies.

0044<figref idref="f0002 f0003 f0004">FIGS. 2 through 5</figref> illustrate one exemplary process and system for using an array of interferometric modulators in a display application.

0045<figref idref="f0002">FIG. 2</figref> is a system block diagram illustrating one embodiment of an electronic device that may incorporate aspects of the invention. In the exemplary embodiment, the electronic device includes a processor 21 which may be any general purpose single- or multi-chip microprocessor such as an ARM, Pentium^®, Pentium II^®, Pentium III^®, Pentium IV^®, Pentium^® Pro, an 8051, a MIPS^®, a Power PC^®, an ALPHA^®, or any special purpose microprocessor such as a digital signal processor, microcontroller, or a programmable gate array. As is conventional in the art, the processor 21 may be configured to execute one or more software modules. In addition to executing an operating system, the processor may be configured to execute one or more software applications, including a web browser, a telephone application, an email program, or any other software application.

0046In one embodiment, the processor 21 is also configured to communicate with an array driver 22. In one embodiment, the array driver 22 includes a row driver circuit 24 and a column driver circuit 26 that provide signals to a display array or panel 30. The cross section of the array illustrated in <figref idref="f0001">FIG. 1</figref> is shown by the lines 1-1 in <figref idref="f0002">FIG. 2</figref>. For MEMS interferometric modulators, the row/column actuation protocol may take advantage of a hysteresis property of these devices illustrated in <figref idref="f0003">FIG. 3</figref>. It may require, for example, a 10 volt potential difference to cause a movable layer to deform from the relaxed state to the actuated state. However, when the voltage is reduced from that value, the movable layer maintains its state as the voltage drops back below 10 volts. In the exemplary embodiment of <figref idref="f0003">FIG. 3</figref>, the movable layer does not relax completely until the voltage drops below 2 volts. There is thus a range of voltage, about 3 to 7 V in the example illustrated in <figref idref="f0003">FIG. 3</figref>, within which the device is stable in either the relaxed or actuated state. This is referred to herein as the "hysteresis window" or "stability window." For a display array having the hysteresis characteristics of <figref idref="f0003">FIG. 3</figref>, the row/column actuation protocol can be designed such that during row strobing, pixels in the strobed row that are to be actuated are exposed to a voltage difference of about 10 volts, and pixels that are to be relaxed are exposed to a voltage difference of close to zero volts. After the strobe, the pixels are exposed to a steady state voltage difference of about 5 volts such that they remain in whatever state the row strobe put them in. After being written, each pixel sees a potential difference within the "stability window" of 3-7 volts in this example. This feature makes the pixel design illustrated in <figref idref="f0001">FIG. 1</figref> stable under the same applied voltage conditions in either an actuated or relaxed pre-existing state. Since each pixel of the interferometric modulator, whether in the actuated or relaxed state, is essentially a capacitor formed by the fixed and moving reflective layers, this stable state can be held at a voltage within the hysteresis window with almost no power dissipation. Essentially no current flows into the pixel if the applied potential is fixed.

0047In typical applications, a display frame may be created by asserting the set of column electrodes in accordance with the desired set of actuated pixels in the first row. A row pulse is then applied to the row 1 electrode, actuating the pixels corresponding to the asserted column lines. The asserted set of column electrodes is then changed to correspond to the desired set of actuated pixels in the second row. A pulse is then applied to the row 2 electrode, actuating the appropriate pixels in row 2 in accordance with the asserted column electrodes. The row 1 pixels are unaffected by the row 2 pulse, and remain in the state they were set to during the row 1 pulse. This may be repeated for the entire series of rows in a sequential fashion to produce the frame. Generally, the frames are refreshed and/or updated with new display data by continually repeating this process at some desired number of frames per second. A wide variety of protocols for driving row and column electrodes of pixel arrays to produce display frames are also well known and may be used in conjunction with the present invention.

0048<figref idref="f0003">FIGS. 4</figref>, <figref idref="f0004">5A, and 5B</figref> illustrate one possible actuation protocol for creating a display frame on the 3×3 array of <figref idref="f0002">FIG. 2</figref>. <figref idref="f0003">FIG. 4</figref> illustrates a possible set of column and row voltage levels that may be used for pixels exhibiting the hysteresis curves of <figref idref="f0003">FIG. 3</figref>. In the <figref idref="f0003">FIG. 4</figref> embodiment, actuating a pixel involves setting the appropriate column to -V_bias, and the appropriate row to +ΔV, which may correspond to -5 volts and +5 volts respectively Releasing the pixel is accomplished by setting the appropriate column to +V_bias, and the appropriate row to the same +ΔV, producing a zero volt potential difference across the pixel. In those rows where the row voltage is held at zero volts, the pixels are stable in whatever state they were originally in, regardless of whether the column is at +V_bias, or -V_bias. As is also illustrated in <figref idref="f0003">FIG. 4</figref>, it will be appreciated that voltages of opposite polarity than those described above can be used, e.g., actuating a pixel can involve setting the appropriate column to +V_bias, and the appropriate row to -ΔV. In this embodiment, releasing the pixel is accomplished by setting the appropriate column to -V_bias, and the appropriate row to the same -ΔV, producing a zero volt potential difference across the pixel. As is also illustrated in <figref idref="f0003">FIG. 4</figref>, it will be appreciated that voltages of opposite polarity than those described above can be used, e.g., actuating a pixel can involve setting the appropriate column to +V_bias, and the appropriate row to -ΔV. In this embodiment, releasing the pixel is accomplished by setting the appropriate column to -V_bias, and the appropriate row to the same -ΔV, producing a zero volt potential difference across the pixel.

0049<figref idref="f0004">FIG. 5B</figref> is a timing diagram showing a series of row and column signals applied to the 3x3 array of <figref idref="f0002">FIG. 2</figref> which will result in the display arrangement illustrated in <figref idref="f0004">FIG. 5A</figref>, where actuated pixels are non-reflective. Prior to writing the frame illustrated in <figref idref="f0004">FIG. 5A</figref>, the pixels can be in any state, and in this example, all the rows are at 0 volts, and all the columns are at +5 volts. With these applied voltages, all pixels are stable in their existing actuated or relaxed states.

0050In the <figref idref="f0004">FIG. 5A</figref> frame, pixels (1,1), (1,2), (2,2), (3,2) and (3,3) are actuated. To accomplish this, during a "line time" for row 1, columns 1 and 2 are set to -5 volts, and column 3 is set to +5 volts. This does not change the state of any pixels, because all the pixels remain in the 3-7 volt stability window. Row 1 is then strobed with a pulse that goes from 0, up to 5 volts, and back to zero. This actuates the (1,1) and (1,2) pixels and releases the (1,3) pixel. No other pixels in the array are affected. To set row 2 as desired, column 2 is set to -5 volts, and columns 1 and 3 are set to +5 volts. The same strobe applied to row 2 will then actuate pixel (2,2) and relax pixels (2,1) and (2,3). Again, no other pixels of the array are affected. Row 3 is similarly set by setting columns 2 and 3 to -5 volts, and column 1 to +5 volts. The row 3 strobe sets the row 3 pixels as shown in <figref idref="f0004">FIG. 5A</figref>. After writing the frame, the row potentials are zero, and the column potentials can remain at either +5 or -5 volts, and the display is then stable in the arrangement of <figref idref="f0004">FIG. 5A</figref>. It will be appreciated that the same procedure can be employed for arrays of dozens or hundreds of rows and columns. It will also be appreciated that the timing, sequence, and levels of voltages used to perform row and column actuation can be varied widely within the general principles outlined above, and the above example is exemplary only, and any actuation voltage method can be used with the systems and methods described herein.

0051<figref idref="f0005">Figures 6A and 6B</figref> are system block diagrams illustrating an embodiment of a display device 40. The display device 40 can be, for example, a cellular or mobile telephone. However, the same components of display device 40 or slight variations thereof are also illustrative of various types of display devices such as televisions and portable media players.

0052The display device 40 includes a housing 41, a display 30, an antenna 43, a speaker 45, an input device 48, and a microphone 46. The housing 41 is generally formed from any of a variety of manufacturing processes as are well known to those of skill in the art, including injection molding and vacuum forming. In addition, the housing 41 may be made from any of a variety of materials, including, but not limited to, plastic, metal, glass, rubber, and ceramic, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the housing 41 includes removable portions (not shown) that may be interchanged with other removable portions of different color, or containing different logos, pictures, or symbols.

0053The display 30 of exemplary display device 40 may be any of a variety of displays, including a bi-stable display, as described herein. In other embodiments, the display 30 includes a flat-panel display, such as plasma, EL, OLED, STN LCD, or TFT LCD as described above, or a non-flat-panel display, such as a CRT or other tube device, as is well known to those of skill in the art. However, for purposes of describing the present embodiment, the display 30 includes an interferometric modulator display, as described herein.

0054The components of one embodiment of exemplary display device 40 are schematically illustrated in <figref idref="f0005">Figure 6B</figref>. The illustrated exemplary display device 40 includes a housing 41 and can include additional components at least partially enclosed therein. For example, in one embodiment, the exemplary display device 40 includes a network interface 27 that includes an antenna 43, which is coupled to a transceiver 47. The transceiver 47 is connected to a processor 21, which is connected to conditioning hardware 52. The conditioning hardware 52 may be configured to condition a signal (e.g., filter a signal). The conditioning hardware 52 is connected to a speaker 45 and a microphone 46. The processor 21 is also connected to an input device 48 and a driver controller 29. The driver controller 29 is coupled to a frame buffer 28 and to an array driver 22, which in turn is coupled to a display array 30. A power supply 50 provides power to all components as required by the particular exemplary display device 40 design.

0055The network interface 27 includes the antenna 43 and the transceiver 47 so that the exemplary display device 40 can communicate with one or more devices over a network. In one embodiment, the network interface 27 may also have some processing capabilities to relieve requirements of the processor 21. The antenna 43 is any antenna known to those of skill in the art for transmitting and receiving signals. In one embodiment, the antenna transmits and receives RF signals according to the IEEE 802.11 standard, including IEEE 802.11 (a), (b), or (g). In another embodiment, the antenna transmits and receives RF signals according to the BLUETOOTH standard. In the case of a cellular telephone, the antenna is designed to receive CDMA, GSM, AMPS, or other known signals that are used to communicate within a wireless cell phone network. The transceiver 47 pre-processes the signals received from the antenna 43 so that they may be received by and further manipulated by the processor 21. The transceiver 47 also processes signals received from the processor 21 so that they may be transmitted from the exemplary display device 40 via the antenna 43.

0056In an alternative embodiment, the transceiver 47 can be replaced by a receiver. In yet another alternative embodiment, network interface 27 can be replaced by an image source, which can store or generate image data to be sent to the processor 21. For example, the image source can be a digital video disc (DVD) or a hard-disc drive that contains image data, or a software module that generates image data.

0057Processor 21 generally controls the overall operation of the exemplary display device 40. The processor 21 receives data, such as compressed image data from the network interface 27 or an image source, and processes the data into raw image data or into a format that is readily processed into raw image data. The processor 21 then sends the processed data to the driver controller 29 or to frame buffer 28 for storage. Raw data typically refers to the information that identifies the image characteristics at each location within an image. For example, such image characteristics can include color, saturation, and grayscale level.

0058In one embodiment, the processor 21 includes a microcontroller, CPU, or logic unit to control operation of the exemplary display device 40. Conditioning hardware 52 generally includes amplifiers and filters for transmitting signals to the speaker 45, and for receiving signals from the microphone 46. Conditioning hardware 52 may be discrete components within the exemplary display device 40, or may be incorporated within the processor 21 or other components.

0059The driver controller 29 takes the raw image data generated by the processor 21 either directly from the processor 21 or from the frame buffer 28 and reformats the raw image data appropriately for high speed transmission to the array driver 22. Specifically, the driver controller 29 reformats the raw image data into a data flow having a raster-like format, such that it has a time order suitable for scanning across the display array 30. Then the driver controller 29 sends the formatted information to the array driver 22. Although a driver controller 29, such as a LCD controller, is often associated with the system processor 21 as a stand-alone Integrated Circuit (IC), such controllers may be implemented in many ways. They may be embedded in the processor 21 as hardware, embedded in the processor 21 as software, or fully integrated in hardware with the array driver 22.

0060Typically, the array driver 22 receives the formatted information from the driver controller 29 and reformats the video data into a parallel set of waveforms that are applied many times per second to the hundreds and sometimes thousands of leads coming from the display's x-y matrix of pixels.

0061In one embodiment, the driver controller 29, array driver 22, and display array 30 are appropriate for any of the types of displays described herein. For example, in one embodiment, driver controller 29 is a conventional display controller or a bi-stable display controller (e.g., an interferometric modulator controller). In another embodiment, array driver 22 is a conventional driver or a bi-stable display driver (e.g., an interferometric modulator display). In one embodiment, a driver controller 29 is integrated with the array driver 22. Such an embodiment is common in highly integrated systems such as cellular phones, watches, and other small area displays. In yet another embodiment, display array 30 is a typical display array or a bi-stable display array (e.g., a display including an array of interferometric modulators).

0062The input device 48 allows a user to control the operation of the exemplary display device 40. In one embodiment, input device 48 includes a keypad, such as a QWERTY keyboard or a telephone keypad, a button, a switch, a touch-sensitive screen, or a pressure- or heat-sensitive membrane. In one embodiment, the microphone 46 is an input device for the exemplary display device 40. When the microphone 46 is used to input data to the device, voice commands may be provided by a user for controlling operations of the exemplary display device 40.

0063Power supply 50 can include a variety of energy storage devices as are well known in the art. For example, in one embodiment, power supply 50 is a rechargeable battery, such as a nickel-cadmium battery or a lithium ion battery. In another embodiment, power supply 50 is a renewable energy source, a capacitor, or a solar cell including a plastic solar cell, and solar-cell paint. In another embodiment, power supply 50 is configured to receive power from a wall outlet.

0064In some embodiments, control programmability resides, as described above, in a driver controller which can be located in several places in the electronic display system. In some embodiments, control programmability resides in the array driver 22. Those of skill in the art will recognize that the above-described optimizations may be implemented in any number of hardware and/or software components and in various configurations.

0065The details of the structure of interferometric modulators that operate in accordance with the principles set forth above may vary widely. For example, <figref idref="f0006 f0007">FIGS. 7A-7E</figref> illustrate five different embodiments of the moving mirror structure. <figref idref="f0006">FIG. 7A</figref> is a cross section of the embodiment of <figref idref="f0001">FIG. 1</figref>, where a strip of metal material 14 is deposited on orthogonally extending supports 18. In <figref idref="f0006">FIG. 7B</figref>, the movable reflective material 14 is attached to supports at the corners only, on tethers 32. In <figref idref="f0006">FIG. 7C</figref>, the movable reflective layer 14 is suspended from a deformable layer 34, which may comprise a flexible metal. The deformable layer 34 connects, directly or indirectly, to the substrate 20 around the perimeter of the deformable layer 34. These connections are herein referred to as support posts. The embodiment illustrated in <figref idref="f0007">Figure 7D</figref> has support post plugs 42 upon which the deformable layer 34 rests. The movable reflective layer 14 remains suspended over the gap, as in <figref idref="f0006">Figures 7A-7C</figref>, but the deformable layer 34 does not form the support posts by filling holes between the deformable layer 34 and the optical stack 16. Rather, the support posts are formed of a planarization material, which is used to form support post plugs 42. The embodiment illustrated in <figref idref="f0007">Figure 7E</figref> is based on the embodiment shown in <figref idref="f0007">Figure 7D</figref>, but may also be adapted to work with any of the embodiments illustrated in <figref idref="f0006">Figures 7A-7C</figref>, as well as additional embodiments not shown. In the embodiment shown in <figref idref="f0007">Figure 7E</figref>, an extra layer of metal or other conductive material has been used to form a bus structure 44. This allows signal routing along the back of the interferometric modulators, eliminating a number of electrodes that may otherwise have had to be formed on the substrate 20.

0066In embodiments such as those shown in <figref idref="f0006 f0007">Figure 7</figref>, the interferometric modulators function as direct-view devices, in which images are viewed from the front side of the transparent substrate 20, the side opposite to that upon which the modulator is arranged. In these embodiments, the reflective layer 14 optically shields the portions of the interferometric modulator on the side of the reflective layer opposite the substrate 20, including the deformable layer 34. This allows the shielded areas to be configured and operated upon without negatively affecting the image quality. Such shielding allows the bus structure 44 in <figref idref="f0007">Figure 7E</figref>, which provides the ability to separate the optical properties of the modulator from the electromechanical properties of the modulator, such as addressing and the movements that result from that addressing. This separable modulator architecture allows the structural design and materials used for the electromechanical aspects and the optical aspects of the modulator to be selected and to function independently of each other. Moreover, the embodiments shown in <figref idref="f0006 f0007">Figures 7C-7E</figref> have additional benefits deriving from the decoupling of the optical properties of the reflective layer 14 from its mechanical properties, which are carried out by the deformable layer 34. This allows the structural design and materials used for the reflective material 14 can be optimized with respect to the optical properties, and the structural design and materials used for the deformable layer 34 can be optimized with respect to desired mechanical properties.

0067Embodiments of interferometric modulators described above operate in one of a reflective state, which produces white light, or light of a color determined by the distance between the mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer of the optical stack 16, or in a non-reflective, e.g., black, state. In other embodiments, for example embodiments disclosed in <patcit id="pcit0004" dnum="US5986796A"><text>U.S. Patent No. 5,986,796</text></patcit>, the movable mirror 14 may be positioned at a range of positions relative to the partially reflective layer in the optical stack 16 to vary the size of the resonant gap 19, and thus to vary the color of reflected light.

0068<figref idref="f0008">Figure 8</figref> is a side cross-sectional view of an example interferometric modulator 12 that illustrates the spectral characteristics of light that would be produced by positioning the movable mirror 14 at a range of positions 111-115. As discussed above, a potential difference between row and column electrodes causes the movable mirror 14 to deflect. The modulator 12 includes a conductive layer 102 of indium-tin-oxide (ITO) acting as a column electrode. In the example modulator 12, the mirror 14 includes the row electrode.

0069In one embodiment, a dielectric layer 106 of a material such as aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃ or "alumina") is positioned over a layer of partially reflective material 104 (e.g., comprising chromium) that forms a reflective surface of the optical stack 16. As discussed above with reference to <figref idref="f0001">Figure 1</figref>, the dielectric layer 106 inhibits shorting and controls the separation distance between the mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104 when the mirror 14 deflects. The optical cavity formed between the mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104 thus includes the dielectric layer 106. The relative sizes of items in <figref idref="f0008">Figure 8</figref> have been selected for purposes of conveniently illustrating the modulator 12. Thus, such distances and thicknesses are not to scale and are not intended to be representative of any particular embodiment of the modulator 12.

0070<figref idref="f0009">Figure 9</figref> is a graphical illustration of reflectivity versus wavelength for several example optical stacks 16 having various thicknesses of dielectric layers 106. The horizontal axis represents a range of wavelengths of visible light incident on the optical stacks. The vertical axis represents the reflectivity of each optical stack 16 as a percentage of incident light at a particular wavelength. In embodiments in which the optical stack 16 does not include a dielectric layer 106, the reflectivity of the optical stack 16 including a layer of chromium is approximately 75%. An optical stack 16 including a dielectric layer 106 comprising a 100 Å thick layer of alumina results in approximately 65% reflectivity, and an optical stack 16 including a dielectric layer 104 comprising a 200 Å thick layer of alumina results in approximately 55% reflectivity. As shown, reflectivity does not vary according to wavelength in these particular embodiments. Accordingly, by adjusting the thickness of an Al₂O₃ layer 106, the reflectivity of the optical stack 16 can be controlled consistently across the visible spectrum to allow specific properties of interferometric modulators 12 to be selected. In certain embodiments, the dielectric layer 106 comprises a layer of Al₂O₃ having a thickness between about 50 and 250 Å. In certain other embodiments, the dielectric layer 106 comprises a layer of Al₂O₃ having a thickness between about 50 and 100 Å and a layer of bulk SiO₂ having a thickness between about 400 and 2,000 Å.

0071As discussed above, the modulator 12 includes an optical cavity formed between the mirror 14 and the reflective surface of the optical stack 16. The characteristic distance, or effective optical path length, L, of the optical cavity determines the resonant wavelength, λ, of the optical cavity 19, and thus of the interferometric modulator 12. The resonant wavelength, λ, of the interferometric modulator 12 generally corresponds to the perceived color of light reflected by the modulator 12. Mathematically, the distance L = ½ × N × λ, where N is an integer. A given resonant wavelength, λ, is thus reflected by interferometric modulators 12 having distances, L, of λ/2 (N=1), λ (N=2), 3λ/2 (N=3), etc. The integer N may be referred to as the "order" of interference of the reflected light. As used herein, the order of a modulator 12 also refers to the order N of light reflected by the modulator 12 when the mirror 14 is in at least one position. For example, a first order red interferometric modulator 12 may have a distance, L, of about 325 nm, corresponding to a wavelength λ of about 650 nm. Accordingly, a second order red interferometric modulator 12 may have a distance, L, of about 650 nm. Generally, higher order modulators 12 reflect light over a narrower range of wavelengths, and thus produce colored light that is more saturated.

0072Note that in certain embodiments, the distance, L, is substantially equal to the distance between the mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104. Where the space between the mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104 comprises only a gas (e.g., air) having an index of refraction of approximately 1, the effective optical path length is substantially equal to the distance, L, between the mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104. In embodiments that include the dielectric layer 106, which has an index of refraction greater than one, the optical cavity 19 is formed to have the desired optical path length by selecting the distance between the mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104 and by selecting the thickness and index of refraction of the dielectric layer 106, or of any other layers between the mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104. In one embodiment, the mirror 14 may be deflected to one or more positions within a range of positions to output a corresponding range of colors. For example, the voltage potential difference between the row and column electrodes may be adjusted to deflect the mirror 14 to one of a range of positions in relation to the partially reflective layer 104. In general, the greatest level of control of the position of the mirror by adjusting voltage is near the undeflected position of the path of the mirror 14 (for example, for smaller deflections, such as deflections within about 1/3rd of the maximum deflection from the undeflected position of the mirror 14).

0073Each of a particular group of positions 111-115 of the movable mirror 14 is denoted in <figref idref="f0008">Figure 8</figref> by a line extending from the partially reflective layer 104 to an arrow point indicating the positions 111-115. Thus, the distances 111-115 are selected so as to account for the thickness and index of refraction of the dielectric layer 106. When the movable mirror 14 deflects to each of the positions 111-115, each corresponding to a different distance, L, the modulator 12 outputs light to a viewing position 101 with a different spectral response that corresponds to different colors of incident light being reflected by the modulator 12. Moreover, at position 111, the movable mirror 14 is sufficiently close to the partially reflective layer 104 (e.g., less than about 200 Å, preferably less than about 100 Å) that the effects of interference are negligible and modulator 12 acts as a mirror that reflects substantially all colors of incident visible light substantially equally, e.g., as white light. The broadband mirror effect is caused because the distance, L, is too small for optical resonance in the visible band. The mirror 14 thus merely acts as a reflective surface with respect to visible light.

0074As the gap 19 is increased to the position 112, the modulator 12 exhibits a shade of gray, as the increased gap 19 distance between the mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104 reduces the reflectivity of the mirror 14. At the position 113, the distance, L, is such that the cavity 19 operates interferometrically but reflects substantially no visible wavelengths of light because the resonant wavelength is outside the visible range, thereby producing black.

0075As the distance, L, is increased further, a peak spectral response of the modulator 12 moves into visible wavelengths. Thus, when the movable mirror 14 is at position 114, the modulator 12 reflects blue light. When the movable mirror 14 is at the position 115, the modulator 12 reflects green light. When the movable mirror 14 is at the non-deflected position 116, the modulator 12 reflects red light.

0076In designing a display using interferometric modulators 12, the modulators 12 may be formed so as to increase the color saturation of reflected light. Saturation refers to the intensity of the hue of color light. A highly saturated hue has a vivid, intense color, while a less saturated hue appears more muted and gray. For example, a laser, which produces a very narrow range of wavelengths, produces highly saturated light. Conversely, a typical incandescent light bulb produces white light that may have a desaturated red or blue color. In some embodiments, the modulator 12 is formed with a distance, L, corresponding to higher order interference, e.g., 2nd or 3rd order, to increase the saturation of reflected color light.

0077An example color display includes red, green, and blue display elements. Other colors can be produced in such a display by varying the relative intensity of light produced by the red, green, and blue elements. Mixtures of primary colors such as red, green, and blue are perceived by the human eye as other colors. The relative values of red, green, and blue in such a color system may be referred to as tristimulus values in reference to the stimulation of red, green, and blue light sensitive portions of the human eye. In general, the more saturated the primary colors, the greater the range of colors that can be produced by the display. In other embodiments, the display may include modulators 12 having sets of colors that define other color systems in terms of sets of primary colors other than red, green, and blue (e.g., red, yellow, and blue; magenta, yellow, and cyan).

0078<figref idref="f0009">Figure 10</figref> is a chromaticity diagram that illustrates the colors that can be produced by a color display that includes two sets of example red, green, and blue interferometric modulators. The horizontal and vertical axes define a chromaticity coordinate system on which spectral tristimulus values may be depicted. In particular, points 120 illustrate the color of light reflected by example red, green, and blue interferometric modulators 12. White light is indicated by a point 122. The distance from each point 120 to the point 122 of white light, e.g., the distance 124 between the point 122 for white and the point 120 for green light, is indicative of the saturation of light produced by the corresponding modulator 12. The region enclosed by the triangular trace 126 corresponds to the range of colors that can be produced by mixing the light produced at points 120. This range of colors may be referred to as the "color gamut" of the display.

0079Points 128 indicate the spectral response of another set of example modulators 12. As indicated by the smaller distance between the points 128 and the white point 122 than between points 120 and point 122, the modulators 12 corresponding to the points 128 produce less saturated light that do the modulators 12 corresponding to the points 120. The trace 130 indicates the range of colors that can be produced by mixing the light of points 128. As is shown in <figref idref="f0009">Figure 10</figref>, the trace 126 encloses a larger area than does the trace 130, graphically illustrating the relationship between the saturation of the display elements 12 and the size of the color gamut of the display.

0080In a reflective display, white light produced using such saturated interferometric modulators 12 tends to have a relatively low intensity to a viewer because only a small range of incident wavelengths is reflected to form the white light. In contrast, a mirror reflecting broadband white light, e.g., substantially all incident wavelengths, has a greater intensity because a greater range of incident wavelengths is reflected. Thus, designing reflective displays using combinations of primary colors to produce white light generally results in a tradeoff between the color saturation and color gamut of the display and the brightness of white light output by the display.

0081<figref idref="f0010">Figure 11</figref> is a side cross-sectional view of an example multistate interferometric modulator 140 that can produce highly saturated color light in one state and relatively intense white light in another state. The example modulator 140 thus decouples color saturation from the brightness of output white light. The modulator 140 includes a movable mirror 14 that is positioned between two electrodes 102 and 142. The modulator 140 also includes a second set of posts 18a that are formed on the opposite side of the mirror 14 as the posts 18.

0082In certain embodiments, each of the mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104 may be part of a stack of layers defining a reflector or reflective member that perform functions other than reflecting light. For example, in the example modulator of <figref idref="f0010">Figure 11</figref>, the mirror 14 is formed of one or more layers of a conductive and reflective material such as aluminum. Thus, the mirror 14 may also function as a conductor. Similarly, the partially reflective layer 104 may be formed of one or more layers of reflective material and one or more layers of an electrically conductive material so as to perform the functions of the electrode 102. Furthermore, each of the mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104 may also include one or more layers having other functions, such as to control the mechanical properties affecting deflection of the mirror 14. In one embodiment, the movable mirror 14 is suspended from an additional deformable layer such is described in connection with <figref idref="f0006 f0007">Figures 7C-7E</figref>.

0083In one embodiment that includes modulators 12 that reflect red, green, and blue light, different reflective materials are used for the mirrors 14 of the modulators 12 that reflect different colors, so as to improve the spectral response of such modulators 12. For example, the movable mirror 14 may include gold in the modulators 12 configured to reflect red light.

0084In one embodiment, dielectric layers 144, 144a may be positioned on either side of the conductor 142. The dielectric layers 144a and 106 advantageously inhibit electrical shorts between conductive portions of the mirror 14 and other portions of the modulator 140. In one embodiment, the partially reflective layer 104 and the electrode 102 collectively form a reflective member.

0085In certain embodiments, the distance between the partially reflective layer 104 and the movable mirror 14 in its undriven position corresponds to the optical path length, L, in which the modulator 140 is non-reflective or "black." In certain embodiments, the optical path length, L, between the partially reflective layer 104 and the movable mirror 14 when driven towards the partially reflective layer 104 corresponds to the optical path length, L, in which the modulator 140 reflects white light. In the exemplary embodiment, the distance between the partially reflective layer 104 and the movable mirror 14 when driven towards the conductor 142 corresponds to the optical path length, L, in which the modulator 140 reflects light of a color such as red, blue, or green. In certain embodiments, the distance, L, between the undriven movable mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104 is substantially equal to the distance, L, between the undriven movable mirror 14 and the electrode 142. Such embodiments may be considered to be two modulators positioned around the single movable mirror 14.

0086When no or small voltage potential differences are applied between the mirror 14 and either the electrode 102 or the electrode 142, the mirror 14 does not deflect with respect to the partially reflective layer 104 to define a first optical path length that corresponds to an undriven state. When a first voltage potential difference is applied between the mirror 14 and the electrode 102, the mirror 14 deflects towards the partially reflective layer 104 to define a second optical path length that corresponds to a first driven state. In this first driven state, the movable mirror 14 is closer to the partially reflective layer 104 than in the undriven state. When a second voltage potential difference is applied between the mirror 14 and the electrode 142, the mirror 14 is deflected away from the partially reflective layer 104 to define a third optical path length that corresponds to a second driven state. In this second driven state, the movable mirror 14 is farther from the partially reflective layer 104 than in the undriven state. In certain embodiments, at least one of the first driven state and second driven state is achieved by applying voltage potential differences both between the mirror 14 and the electrode 102 and between the mirror 14 and the electrode 142. In certain embodiments, the second voltage difference is selected to provide a desired deflection of the mirror 14.

0087As illustrated in <figref idref="f0010">Figure 11</figref>, in the first driven state, the mirror 14 deflects to a position indicated by the dashed line 159. In the exemplary modulator 140, the distance between the mirror 14 and the partially reflective layer 104 in this first driven state corresponds to the thickness of the dielectric layer 106. In the exemplary modulator 140, the mirror 14 acts as a broadband mirror in this driven position, substantially reflecting all visible wavelengths of light. As such, the modulator 140 produces a broadband white light when illuminated by broadband white light.

0088In the second driven state, the mirror 14 deflects to a position indicated by the dashed line 158. In the exemplary modulator 140, this distance corresponds to a color of light, e.g., blue light. In the undriven state, the mirror 14 is positioned as shown in <figref idref="f0010">Figure 11</figref>. In the undeflected position, the mirror 14 is spaced at a distance from the partially reflective layer 104 so that substantially no visible light is reflected, e.g., an "off" or non-reflective state. Thus, the modulator 140 defines an interferometric modulator having at least three discrete states. In other embodiments, the positions of the movable mirror 14 in the three states may be selected so as to produce different sets of colors, including black and white, as desired.

0089In one embodiment, light enters the modulator 12 through the substrate 20 and is output to a viewing position 141. In another embodiment, the stack of layers illustrated in <figref idref="f0010">Figure 11</figref> is reversed, with layer 144 closest to the substrate 20 rather than layer 102. In certain such embodiments, the modulator 12 may be viewed through the opposite side of the stack from the substrate 20 rather than through the substrate 20. In one such embodiment, a layer of silicon dioxide is formed on the ITO layer 102 to electrically isolate the ITO layer 102.

0090As noted above, having a separate state for outputting white light in a modulator 140 decouples the selection of the properties of the modulator controlling color saturation from the properties of the modulator affecting the brightness of white output. The distance and other characteristics of the modulator 140 may thus be selected to provide a highly saturated color without affecting the brightness of the white light produced in the first state. For example, in an exemplary color display, one or more of the red, green, and blue modulators 140 may be formed with optical path lengths corresponding to a higher order of interference.

0091The modulator 140 may be formed using lithographic techniques known in the art, and such as described above with reference to the modulator 12. For example, the partially reflective layer 104 may be formed by depositing one or more layers of chromium onto the substantially transparent substrate 20. The electrode 102 may be formed by depositing one or more layers of a transparent conductor such as ITO onto the substrate 20. The conductor layers are patterned into parallel strips, and may form columns of electrodes. The movable mirror 14 may be formed as a series of parallel strips of a deposited metal layer or layers (e.g., oriented substantially orthogonal to the column electrodes 102) deposited on top of posts 18 and an intervening sacrificial material deposited between the posts 18. Vias through one or more of the layers described above may be provided so that etchant gas, such as xenon diflouride (XeF₂) in embodiments in which the sacrificial layer comprises molybdenum, can reach the sacrificial layers. When the sacrificial material is etched away, the deformable metal layers are separated from the optical stack 16 by an air gap. A highly conductive and reflective material such as aluminum may be used for the deformable layers, and these strips may form row electrodes in a display device. The conductor 142 may be formed by depositing posts 18a over the movable mirror 14, depositing an intervening sacrificial material between the posts 18a, depositing one or more layers of a conductor such as aluminum on top of the posts 18a, and depositing a conductive layer over the sacrificial material. When the sacrificial material is etched away, the conductive layer can serve as the electrode 142, which is separated from the mirror 14 by a second air gap. Each of the air gaps provides a cavity in which the mirror 14 may move to achieve each of the states described above.

0092As further illustrated in <figref idref="f0010">Figure 11</figref>, in the exemplary modulator 140, the conductive mirror 14 is connected to the row driver 154 of the array controller 152. In the exemplary modulator 140, the conductors 102 and 142 are connected to separate columns in the column driver 156. In one embodiment, the state of the modulator 140 is selected by applying the appropriate voltage potential differences between the mirror 14 and the column conductors 102 and 142 according to the method described with reference to <figref idref="f0003">Figures 3 and 4</figref>.

0093<figref idref="f0011">Figures 12A-12C</figref> illustrates another exemplary interferometric modulator 150 that provides more than two states. In the exemplary modulator 150, the optical stack 16 includes both a reflective layer and a conductive layer so as to perform the function of the electrode 102 of <figref idref="f0010">Figure 11</figref>. The conductive layer 142 can also be protected by a second dielectric layer 144a and supported by a support surface 148 that is maintained some distance above the movable mirror 14 through a second set of supports 18a.

0094<figref idref="f0011">Figure 12A</figref> illustrates the undriven state of the modulator 150. As with the modulator 140 of <figref idref="f0010">Figure 11</figref>, the mirror 14 of the exemplary modulator 150 of <figref idref="f0011">Figures 12A-12C</figref> is deflectable towards the dielectric layer 104 (e.g., downwards), as in the driven state illustrated <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12B</figref>, and is deflectable in the reverse or opposite direction (e.g., upwards), as illustrated in <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12C</figref>. This "upwardly" deflected state may be called the "reverse driven state."

0095As will be appreciated by one of skill in the art, this reverse driven state can be achieved in a number of ways. In one embodiment, the reverse driven state is achieved through the use of an additional charge plate or conductive layer 142 that can electrostatically pull the mirror 14 in the upward direction, as depicted in <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12C</figref>. The exemplary modulator 150 includes what is basically two interferometric modulators positioned symmetrically around a single movable mirror 14. This configuration allows each of the conductive layer of the optical stack 16 and the conductive layer 142 to attract the mirror 14 in opposite directions.

0096In certain embodiments, the additional conductive layer 142 may be useful as an electrode in overcoming stictional forces (static friction) that may develop when the mirror 14 comes in close proximity, or contacts, the dielectric layer 106. These forces can include van der Waals or electrostatic forces, as well as other possibilities as appreciated by one of skill in the art. In one embodiment, a voltage pulse applied to the conductive layer of the optical stack 16 may send the movable mirror 14 into the "normal" driven state of <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12B</figref>. Similarly, the next voltage pulse can be applied to the conductive layer 142 to attract the movable mirror 14 away from the optical stack 16. In certain embodiments, such a voltage pulse applied to the conductive layer 142 can be used to accelerate the recovery of the movable mirror 14 back to the undriven state illustrated in <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12A</figref> from the driven state illustrated in <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12B</figref> by driving the movable mirror 14 towards the reverse driven state. Thus, in certain embodiments, the modulator 150 may operate in only two states, the undriven state of <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12A</figref> and the driven state of <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12B</figref>, and can employ the conductive layer 142 as an electrode to help overcome stictional forces. In one embodiment, the conductive layer 142 may be driven as described above each time that the modulator 150 changes from the driven position of <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12B</figref> to the undriven position of <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12A</figref>.

0097As will be appreciated by one of skill in the art, not all of these elements will be required in every embodiment. For example, if the precise relative amount of upward deflection (e.g., as shown in <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12C</figref>) is not relevant in the operation of such embodiments, then the conductive layer 142 can be positioned at various distances from the movable mirror 14. Thus, there may be no need for support elements 18a, the dielectric layer 144a, or a separate support surface 148. In these embodiments, it is not necessarily important how far upward the movable mirror 14 deflects, but rather that the conductive layer 142 is positioned to attract the mirror 14 at the appropriate time, such as to unstick the modulator 12. In other embodiments, the position of the movable mirror 14 as shown in <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12C</figref> may result in altered and desirable optical characteristics for the interferometric modulator 150. In these embodiments, the precise distance of deflection of the movable mirror 14 in the upward direction can be relevant in improving the image quality of the device.

0098As will be appreciated by one of skill in the art, the materials used to produce the layers 142, 144a, and support surface 148 need not be similar to the materials used to produce the corresponding layers 102, 104, and 20, respectively. For example, light need not pass through the layer 148. Additionally, if the conductive layer 142 is positioned beyond the reach of the movable mirror 14 in its deformed upward position, then the modulator 150 may not include the dielectric layer 144a. Additionally, the voltages applied to the conductive layer 142 and the movable mirror 14 can be accordingly different based on the above differences.

0099As will be appreciated by one of skill in the art, the voltage applied to drive the movable mirror 14 from the driven state of <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12B</figref>, back to the undriven state of <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12A</figref> may be different than that required to drive the movable mirror 14 from the undriven state of <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12A</figref> to the upward or reverse driven state of <figref idref="f0011">Figure 12C</figref>, as the distance between the conductive layer 142 and movable mirror 14 may be different in the two states. Such requirements can depend upon the desired application and amounts of deflection, and can be determined by one of skill in the art in view of the present disclosure.

0100In some embodiments, the amount of force or duration that a force is applied between the conductive layer 142 and the movable mirror 14 is such that it only increases the rate at which the interferometric modulator 150 transitions between the driven state and the undriven state. Since the movable mirror 14 can be attracted to either conductive layer 142 or the conductive layer of the optical stack 16, which are located on opposite sides of movable mirror 14, a very brief driving force can be provided to weaken the interaction of movable mirror 14 with the opposite layer. For example, as the movable mirror 14 is driven to interact with the optical stack 16, a pulse of energy to the opposite conductive layer 142 can be used to weaken the interaction of the movable mirror 14 and the optical stack 16, thereby make it easier for the movable mirror 14 to move to the undriven state.

0101In certain embodiments, a MEMS device comprises a substrate, a movable element over the substrate, and an actuation electrode. The movable element comprises a deformable layer and a reflective element spaced from the deformable layer. As described above, in certain embodiments the optical properties of the movable element are separated from the mechanical properties of the movable element (e.g., by providing a deformable layer and a reflective element). In certain such embodiments, the optical properties of the movable element are separated from the electrical properties of the movable element as well as the mechanical properties of the movable element by positioning the actuation electrode above the movable element.

0102<figref idref="f0012">Figure 13A</figref> illustrates an embodiment of a MEMS device 1300 in the unactuated (or "relaxed") state. The MEMS device 1300 comprises a movable element 1340 over a substrate 20. The movable element 1340 comprises a deformable layer 1302 and a reflective element 1314 having a reflective surface 1301. The MEMS device 1300 further comprises an actuation electrode 142 above the movable element 1340. In certain embodiments, the deformable layer 1302 is attracted towards the actuation electrode 142 by electrostatic forces, which pull the deformable layer 1302 towards the actuation electrode 142. The reflective element 1314 is mechanically coupled to the deformable layer 1302 such that, as the deformable layer 1302 moves towards the actuation electrode 142, the reflective surface 1301 of the reflective element 1314 moves a corresponding distance relative to and away from a first reflective surface 104, which in some embodiments is formed on the substrate 20. The movement of the reflective surface 1301 turns the MEMS device 1300 "on" or "off," as described above. By decoupling the electrical function from the optical function, the area of the electrically active portion of the movable element 1340 can be reduced to be smaller than the area of the optical portion of the movable element 1340.

0103<figref idref="f0012">Figure 13B</figref> illustrates the MEMS device 1300 of <figref idref="f0012">Figure 13A</figref> in an actuated state. Electrostatic attractive forces created by applying voltages to the actuation electrode 142 act on the deformable layer 1302. The movable element 1340 is responsive to the attractive forces by moving in a direction towards the actuation electrode 142, as indicated by the arrows 1320. An upper surface of the deformable layer 1302 contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1300 (e.g., the insulating layer 144a), stopping the movement of the movable element 1340.

0104The MEMS device 1300 further comprises a first support structure (or "post") 18 between the substrate 20 and the deformable layer 1302, a second support structure 18a between the deformable layer 1302 and the actuation electrode 142, and insulating layers 106, 144a. Other configurations are also possible. For example, although the illustrated embodiment has a deformable layer 1302 supported by support structures 18, other embodiments are also possible (e.g., as illustrated in <figref idref="f0006 f0007">Figures 7C-7E</figref>, as described below). For another example, one or both of the insulating layers 106, 144a may be omitted in some embodiments.

0105The MEMS device 1300 further comprises an optical layer (first reflective layer) 104. In certain embodiments, the substrate 20 comprises the optical layer 104 (e.g., in embodiments in which the first reflective layer 104 is formed over the substrate 20). Light incident on the reflective element 1314 is reflected from the reflective element. The incident light and the reflected light propagate through the optical layer 104, but do not propagate through the actuation electrode 142 (e.g., because the actuation electrode 142 is positioned above the reflective element 1314). Thus, in contrast to the interferometric modulators 140, 150, the MEMS device 1300 does not have an electrode in the optical path.

0106In some embodiments, the movable element 1340 comprises a connecting element 1318 that mechanically couples the deformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314 together. In embodiments in which the connecting element 1318 is electrically conductive and electrically couples the deformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314 together, any potential that builds up on the reflective element 1314 can discharge through the deformable layer 1302. Such discharge can reduce arcing that can result from two conductors (e.g., the reflective element 1314 and the first reflective layer 104) at different potentials. In certain embodiments, the movable element 1340 further comprises a connecting element 1319, as schematically illustrated in <figref idref="f0012">Figures 13A-13C</figref>. The connecting element 1319 may be insulating (e.g., comprising SiO₂, Al₂O₃) or conductive (e.g., comprising nickel, aluminum, etc.). Certain embodiments in which the connecting layer 1319 is electrically conductive may advantageously decrease an amount of curvature and/or tilt of the reflective element 1314 (e.g., in embodiments in which the materials for the deformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314 have different internal stresses and/or coefficients of thermal expansion, the connecting element 1319 may decrease and/or absorb the stresses).

0107The MEMS device 1300 further comprises a black mask 1310 comprising a first layer 1308 and a reflective layer 1309. Light incident on the black mask 1310 reflects between the reflective layer 1309 and the first reflective layer 104 in the area 1311, and is therefore absorbed by the MEMS device 1300 rather than being reflected. As such, the portions of the MEMS device 1300 comprising the black mask 1310 appear black to a viewer of the MEMS device 1300. Black masks may also be used in other portions of the MEMS device 1300, for example to prevent undesired modulation of light and/or to minimize the reflectance of areas that do not modulate light, thereby improving contrast ratio.

0108As illustrated in <figref idref="f0012">Figure 13A</figref>, in certain embodiments the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 is spaced from the reflective element 1314 when no voltage is applied to the actuation electrode 142. In certain alternative embodiments, the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 is in contact with the reflective element 1314 when no voltage is applied to the actuation electrode 142. <figref idref="f0012">Figure 13C</figref> illustrates an embodiment of a MEMS device 1305 in which the deformable layer 1302 is configured such that the movable element 1340 "launches" negatively (e.g., towards the substrate 20) in the relaxed state. For example, the residual stresses between the deformable layer 1302 and the support structure 18 and/or the support structure 18a may be designed such that the deformable layer 1302 deflects downward upon removal of sacrificial layers. The actuated state of the MEMS device 1305 of <figref idref="f0012">Figure 13C</figref> may be substantially the same as depicted in <figref idref="f0012">Figure 13B</figref>.

0109The response time of a MEMS device is proportional to a product of the resistance of the conductors and the capacitance. A MEMS device comprising an actuation electrode 142 above the movable element 1340 may advantageously reduce resistance and/or and capacitance, thereby reducing response time. Reducing the response time can increase the screen refresh rate and enhance temporal modulation. In addition to decreasing response time, reducing the capacitance of the MEMS device can decrease the power consumption of the MEMS device.

0110In embodiments in which an actuation electrode 102 is in the optical path of the MEMS device (e.g., as depicted in <figref idref="f0008">Figure 8</figref>), it comprises a material that is transparent to light, for example, but not limited to, ITO, ZnTO, indium zinc oxide (IZO), and indium oxide (IO). In general, transparent conductors have poor electrical resistance compared to non-transparent conductors, which can result in poor power dissipation and high electrical time constants for MEMS devices comprising transparent actuation electrodes 102. However, an actuation electrode 142 above the movable element 1340 is not in the optical path, which allows the actuation electrode 142 to comprise non-transparent conductors such as aluminum, copper, silver, gold, etc., as well as transparent conductors. Certain MEMS devices comprising a non-transparent actuation electrode 142 can advantageously have lower power dissipation and/or shorter electrical response times than MEMS devices comprising a transparent actuation electrode 102 because non-transparent conductors can have a lower resistance than transparent conductors.

0111Certain transparent conductors such as ITO are sensitive to high temperature processes, such that the maximum processing temperature of the MEMS device is limited after formation of the actuation electrode 102. For example, ITO degrades at temperatures around 350 °C and higher, increasing the resistivity of an actuation electrode 102 comprising ITO. As such, certain processes (e.g., chemical vapor deposition (CVD) greater than 350 °C) are not typically performed on structures comprising ITO. However, MEMS devices comprising an actuation electrode 142 above the movable element 1340 may have an actuation electrode 142 comprising a variety of conductors that can withstand high temperature processing, which increases process flexibility for components of the MEMS device. For example, certain depositions can be performed at high temperatures. For another example, certain deposition processes may be CVD rather than physical vapor deposition (PVD) (e.g., sputter), which can enhance deposition conformality and uniformity. Moreover, in certain embodiments in which the actuation electrode 142 is above the movable element 1340, the actuation electrode 142 may be formed towards the end of the fabrication process (e.g., after high temperature processes have been performed).

0112The thickness of an actuation electrode 102 in the optical path is limited in order to avoid adversely impacting the optical properties of the MEMS device, but an actuation electrode 142 above the movable element 1340 may have a variety of thicknesses because it is not in the optical path. Increasing the thickness of the actuation electrode 142 can, for example, advantageously increase conductivity, thereby reducing response time and/or power consumption of the MEMS device. Moreover, thick actuation electrodes 142 enable the use of alternative deposition methods (e.g., coating, inkjet printing, printable conductors), which can lower manufacturing costs.

0113In embodiments in which the actuation electrode 102 is in the optical path of the MEMS device such that it pulls the mirror 14 towards the substrate 20, the mirror 14 generally contacts the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 (e.g., the top surface of an insulating layer 106 on the substrate 20) with the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 acting as a "stop" for movement of the mirror 14. In embodiments in which the reflective surface of the mirror 14 and the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 are flat (e.g., to enhance color gamut), stiction between the surfaces may disadvantageously affect operation of MEMS devices in which they contact. Certain features, such as surface roughening and anti-stiction layers, may be used to reduce such stiction, but those features can adversely impact the optical performance of the MEMS device. However, an actuation electrode 142 above the movable element 1340 allows configuration of the MEMS device 1300 such that a portion of the movable element 1340 contacts the actuation electrode 142 and acts as the stop for movement of the movable element 1340 rather than the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20. The interface where the portion of the movable element 1340 contacts the actuation electrode 142 can be advantageously adapted to reduce stiction without impacting optical performance because it is not in the optical path. For example, the surface topography of the insulating layer 144a may be roughened to reduce the number of contact points or an anti-stiction layer may be formed on the actuation electrode 142.

0114Transparent actuation electrodes 102 are generally under the entire reflective surface of the mirror 14 (e.g., as depicted in <figref idref="f0008">Figure 8</figref>) such that the electrostatic forces created by applying voltages to the actuation electrode 102 are sufficient to actuate the MEMS device. Thus, in embodiments in which a capacitor of the MEMS device comprises the mirror 14 and the actuation electrode 102, the area of the capacitor and the capacitance of the MEMS device is high. In embodiments employing larger mirrors 14 (e.g., to enhance fill factor), the MEMS device can have even higher capacitances. A MEMS device 1300 in which the capacitor comprises the actuation electrode 142 and portions of an upper surface of the deformable layer 1302 (e.g., as depicted in <figref idref="f0012">Figure 13A</figref>) can advantageously reduce the area of the capacitor and decrease the capacitance of the MEMS device 1300.

0115A MEMS device 1300 in which the capacitor comprises the actuation electrode 142 and portions of an upper surface of the deformable layer 1302 (e.g., as depicted in <figref idref="f0012">Figure 13A</figref>) can also advantageously decrease a mechanical force used to operate the MEMS device and decrease certain dimensions of the deformable layer 1302 because the mechanical function is at least partially separated from the optical function. In certain embodiments in which the actuation electrode 142 of the MEMS device is between the deformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314 and acts a stop for the deformable layer 1302 or the reflective element 1314, the area of contact can be smaller than the area of the reflective surface 1301. The smaller area of contact results in less stiction, so lower mechanical forces may be used, allowing the dimensions of the deformable layer 1302 to be reduced. In embodiments in which the capacitor comprises the deformable layer 1302 and the actuation electrode 142, reduced dimensions of the deformable layer 1302 can decrease the area of the capacitor, and thus advantageously reduce the capacitance and power consumption of the MEMS device 1300.

0116High reflectivity broadband white, in which the distance between the first and second reflective layers of a MEMS device is negligible (e.g., less than about 100 Å), is not possible in embodiments in which the actuation electrode 102 is in the optical path electrical shorts may occur between the actuation electrode 102 and the mirror 14 when the insulating layer 106 is that thin. Low reflectivity black, in which the distance between the first and second reflective layers of a MEMS device is between about 90 and 110 nm (e.g., about 100 nm) and certain colors (e.g., red, green, blue, etc.) are also not possible in embodiments in which the actuation electrode 102 is in the optical path because the insulating layer 106 reduces reflectivity (e.g., as described above with respect to <figref idref="f0009">Figure 9</figref>).

0117In the embodiment illustrated in <figref idref="f0008">Figure 8</figref>, the mirror 14 is electrically insulated from the actuation electrode 102 and the first reflective layer 104 by the insulating layer 106, as described above. In certain embodiments in which the MEMS device comprises an actuation electrode 142 above the movable element 1340, the insulating layer 106 may optionally be eliminated from the MEMS device, for example in embodiments in which the reflective element 1314 does not contact the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 (e.g., when the relaxed state is above the top of the substrate 20, as depicted by the MEMS device 1300 of <figref idref="f0012">Figure 13A</figref>) and embodiments in which the reflective element 1314 contacts the first reflective layer 104 (e.g., due to negative launching, as depicted by the MEMS device 1300 of <figref idref="f0012">Figure 13C</figref>). Elimination of the insulating layer 106 allows the reflective surface 1301 of the reflective element 1314 and the first reflective surface 104 to be separated by a negligible distance (e.g., by less than about 100 Å or touching). Each interface of reflective MEMS devices causes some reflectance, so embodiments without an insulating layer 106 may produce better colors (e.g., better black) than embodiments including an insulating layer 106. Gray may also be produced without temporal modulation by spacing the reflective surface 1301 of the reflective element 1314 from the first reflective layer 104 by between about 100 Å and 100 nm.

0118Referring again to <figref idref="f0012">Figure 13C</figref>, the relaxed state may produce high reflectivity broadband white (e.g., by touching the first reflective layer 104 or being spaced less than about 100 Å from the first reflective layer 104), low reflectivity black (e.g., by being spaced from the first reflective layer 104 by about 100 nm), gray (e.g., by being spaced from the first reflective layer 104 by between about 100 Å and 100 nm), or a color (e.g., yellow, red, blue, etc.).

0119In embodiments in which the MEMS device 1300 is configured such that the reflective element 1314 and the first reflective layer 104 contact or nearly contact so as to produce broadband white, the reflective element 1314 and the first reflective layer 104 are preferably at the same potential in order to decrease any electrostatic forces or electric field therebetween that may cause arcing. In certain embodiments, the reflective element 1314 is in electrical communication with the first reflective layer 104 through the deformable layer 1302 such that they are at the same potential. In certain embodiments, the reflective element 1314 is electrically insulated from the deformable layer 1302 (e.g., using a dielectric connecting element 1319) and the first reflective layer 104 is also electrically insulated, such that they are at the same potential. In order to reduce stiction between the reflective element 1314 and the first reflective layer 104 in embodiments in which they contact, conductive features (e.g., bumps) may be applied to the first reflective layer 104 and/or the reflective surface 1301, although such features may negatively impact optical performance of the MEMS device.

0120In certain embodiments, a MEMS device comprises an actuation electrode 142 above the movable element and a second actuation electrode. The movable element is responsive to voltages applied to the actuation electrode 142 above the movable element by moving generally in a first direction, as described above. The movable element is further responsive to voltages applied to the second actuation electrode by moving generally in a second direction that is substantially opposite the first direction. The MEMS device is thus capable of stably producing at least three colors: a first color in the relaxed state, a second color in the actuated state in the first direction, and a third color in the actuated state in the second direction.

0121<figref idref="f0013">Figure 14A</figref> illustrates a MEMS device 1400 comprising a movable element 1440 over a substrate 20. The movable element 1440 comprises a deformable layer 1302 and a reflective element 1314 spaced from the deformable layer 1302 and having a reflective surface 1301. The MEMS device 1400 further comprises an actuation electrode 142 above the movable element 1440 and a second actuation electrode 902 between the deformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314. In <figref idref="f0013">Figure 14A</figref>, the second actuation electrode 902 is supported by support structures 18. In certain alternative embodiments, the second actuation electrode 902 is supported by other support structures (e.g., spaced from the support structures 18). However, certain such embodiments may reduce the fill factor of the MEMS device by occupying portions of the MEMS device that could more advantageously be used for the reflective element 1314.

0122In embodiments in which the deformable layer 1302 is in electrical communication with the reflective element 1314 (e.g., due to a conductive connecting element 1418 and/or conductive connecting element therebetween (not shown)), the deformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314 are at the same potential. In certain such embodiments, when a voltage is applied to the second actuation electrode 902, a first attractive force in a first direction (e.g., towards the reflective element 1314) acts on a first portion of the movable element 1440 (e.g., the deformable layer 1302) and a second attractive force in a second direction (e.g., away from the reflective element 1314) acts on a second portion of the movable element 1440 (e.g., the reflective element 1314). In certain other such embodiments, when a voltage is applied to the second actuation electrode 902, a first attractive force in a first direction (e.g., away from the reflective element 1314) acts on a first portion of the movable element 1440 (e.g., the reflective element 1314) and a second attractive force in a second direction (e.g., towards the reflective element 1314) acts on a second portion of the movable element 1440 (e.g., the deformable layer 1302). The second direction is substantially opposite to the first direction. In embodiments in which the first attractive force is greater than the second attractive force, the movable element 1440 is responsive to the first and second attractive forces by moving generally in the first direction, for example in a direction generally perpendicular to the substrate 20.

0123<figref idref="f0013">Figure 14B</figref> illustrates an embodiment of the MEMS device 1400 of <figref idref="f0013">Figure 14A</figref> in a first actuated state. The first attractive force acts on the deformable layer 1302 and the second attractive force acts on the reflective element 1314. The movable element 1340 is responsive to the first and second attractive forces by moving generally in the first direction, for example in a direction generally perpendicular to the substrate 20 as illustrated by arrows 1420. A lower surface of the deformable layer 1302 contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1400 (e.g., the second actuation electrode 902). In certain such embodiments, the reflective element 1314 does not contact the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 (e.g., the top surface 1306 of the insulating layer 106 or the top surface 1306 of the first reflective layer 104) in the actuated state. Other embodiments are also possible. For example, the reflective surface 1301 of the reflective element 1314 may contact a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1400 (e.g., the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20) before the lower surface of the deformable layer 1302 contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1400.

0124<figref idref="f0013">Figure 14C</figref> illustrates an embodiment of the MEMS device 1400 of <figref idref="f0013">Figure 14A</figref> in a second actuated state. The movable element 1440 is responsive an attractive force produced by applying voltages to the actuation electrode 142 by moving in a direction towards the actuation electrode 142, as indicated by arrows 1422. An upper surface of the deformable layer 1302 contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1400 (e.g., the insulating layer 144a). In certain embodiments, the reflective element 1314 does not contact the second actuation electrode 902 in the actuated state. Other embodiments are also possible. For example, an upper surface of the reflective element 1314 may contact a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1400 (e.g., the second actuation electrode 902) before the deformable layer 1302 contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1400.

0125In order to ensure that the displacement in response to voltages applied between the second actuation electrode 902 and the movable element 1440 occurs substantially only in the movable element 1440 (e.g., due to deformation of the deformable layer 1302) and substantially not in the second actuation electrode 902, the second actuation electrode 902 is preferably stiff or rigid. The stiffness of a layer is proportional to the cube of the thickness of the layer. In certain embodiments, the second actuation electrode 902 has a thickness such that it substantially does not deform. For example, in embodiments in which the second actuation electrode 902 comprises aluminum, the actuation electrode may have a thickness greater than about 2.15 times the thickness of the deformable layer 1302. It will be appreciated that other dimensions (e.g., length and width) may also influence the rigidity of the second actuation electrode 902.

0126Referring again to <figref idref="f0013">Figure 14A</figref>, in certain embodiments, in the relaxed state, the deformable layer 1302 is separated from the second actuation electrode 902 by a distance D₁ and the reflective element 1314 is separated from the second actuation electrode 902 by a distance D₂ that is different than D₁. The electrostatic force between two conductive layers with a potential difference between the two conductive layers is inversely proportional to the distance between the two conductive layers. Thus, the smaller the distance between the second actuation electrode 902 and a portion of the movable element 1440, the greater the magnitude of the electrostatic forces acting on that portion of the movable element 1440. If the distance D₂ is greater than the distance D₁, the electrostatic forces per unit area acting on the deformable layer 1302 are greater than the electrostatic forces per unit area acting on the reflective element 1314. In certain such embodiments, application of voltages to the second actuation electrode 902 will cause the movable element 1440 to move towards the substrate 20. If the distance D₁ is greater than the distance D₂, the electrostatic forces per unit area acting on the reflective element 1314 are greater than the electrostatic forces per unit area acting on the deformable layer 1302. In certain such embodiments, application of voltages to the second actuation electrode 902 will cause the movable element 1440 to move away from the substrate 20. In embodiments comprising an actuation electrode 142, which causes the movable element 1440 to move away from the substrate 20, the distance D₂ is preferably greater than the distance D₁ such that the actuation electrodes 142, 902 cause deflection in different directions.

0127In certain embodiments, the percentage difference between the distances D₁, D₂ is greater than about 5%, greater than about 10%, greater than about 15%, or greater than about 20%. The difference between the distances D₁, D₂ should be balanced with certain other factors, for example the optical interference properties (e.g., the reflected color) and the thickness of the MEMS device, which also depend on the distances D₁, D₂. Once there is some amount of imbalance (i.e., a suitable difference between the distances D₁, D₂), application of voltages to the second actuation electrode 902 will attract the portion of the movable element 1440 with the shorter distance towards the actuation electrode 902, thereby decreasing that distance while also increasing the distance from the portion of the movable element 1440 with the larger distance. Thus, even in embodiments having a small amount of imbalance (e.g., due to distance differences below about 10%), the electrostatic forces can suitably cause actuation of the movable element 1440.

0128Regardless of the distances between the second actuation electrode 902 and the first and second portions of the movable element 1440, electrostatic forces may be at least partially reduced by a conductive layer that shields at least a portion of the voltage difference between the actuation electrode 902 and the movable element 1440. For example, shielding the first portion of the movable element 1440 from the second actuation electrode 902 can cause the electrostatic forces to act more substantially on the second portion of the movable element 1440. If the first portion of the movable element 1440 that is at least partially shielded from the actuation electrode 902 comprises the reflective element 1314, application of voltages to the second actuation electrode 902 will cause the movable element 1440 to move towards the substrate 20. If the first portion of the movable element 1440 that is at least partially shielded from the actuation electrode 902 comprises the deformable layer 1302, application of voltages to the second actuation electrode 902 will cause the movable element 1440 to move away from the substrate 20. In embodiments comprising an actuation electrode 142, which causes the movable element 1440 to move away from the substrate 20, a second conductive layer 1558, described in detail below, is preferably on a side of the first conductive layer 1552 such that the actuation electrodes 142, 902 cause deflection in different directions. In certain such embodiments, shielding can reduce the thickness of a display device comprising the MEMS device 1400 because there does not need to be a difference between the distances D₁, D₂, although shielding may also increase design complexity and fabrication costs.

0129<figref idref="f0014">Figure 15A</figref> illustrates a portion of an embodiment in which the second actuation electrode 902 comprises a multi-layer stack including a conductive layer 1552 and an insulating layer 1554. In certain embodiments, the conductive layer 1552 comprises a conductive material to which voltages are applied, and the insulating layer 1554 provides the desired rigidity to the second actuation electrode 902 and provides electrical insulation to inhibit shorts between the second actuation electrode 902 and the movable element 1440. For example, a layer of SiO₂ greater than about 1,500 Å thick is sufficiently rigid. In certain alternative embodiments, the conductive layer 1552 comprises a conductive material to which voltages are applied and provides the desired rigidity to the second actuation electrode 902, and the insulating layer 1554 provides electrical insulation to inhibit shorts between the second actuation electrode 902 and the movable element 1440. In embodiments in which the MEMS device 1400 is designed such that the movable element 1440 moves towards substrate 20 upon actuation, the insulating layer 1554 is preferably above the conductive layer 1552 (e.g., as illustrated in <figref idref="f0014">Figure 15A</figref>) because a lower surface of the deformable layer 1302 may contact the second actuation electrode 902 when the MEMS device 1400 is in the actuated state. In embodiments in which the MEMS device 1400 is designed such that the movable element 1440 moves away from the substrate 20 upon actuation, the insulating layer 1554 is preferably below the conductive layer 1552 because an upper surface of the reflective element 1314 may contact the second actuation electrode 902 when the MEMS device 1400 is in the actuated state. Other configurations of multi-layer second actuation electrodes 902 are also possible. For example, the second actuation electrode 902 may comprise a single rigid layer of conductive material and an insulating layer may be formed on a lower surface of the deformable layer 1302 and/or an upper surface of the reflective element 1314. Other multi-layer stacks are also possible. For example, the second actuation electrode 902 may further comprise a second insulating layer on as side of the conductive layer 1552 opposite the insulating layer 1554 to provide electrical insulation to inhibit shorts between the second actuation electrode 902 and other portions of the movable element 1440.

0130The thickness of the insulating layer 1554 is included in the distance from the conductive portion 1552 of the second actuation electrode 902 to the deformable layer 1302, D₁ (e.g., when formed over the conductive portion 1552, as depicted in <figref idref="f0014">Figure 15A</figref>) or to the reflective element 1314, D₂ (e.g., when formed under the conductive portion 1552). In certain embodiments, the insulating layer 2254 is selected to provide a desired dielectric permittivity to tailor the electrostatic force between the actuation electrode 902 and the movable element 1440.

0131<figref idref="f0014">Figure 15B</figref> illustrates another embodiment in which the second actuation electrode 902 comprises a multi-layer stack. The second actuation electrode 902 comprises a first conductive layer 1552 to which actuation voltages are applied, a first insulating layer 1554 that inhibits shorts between the second actuation electrode 902 and the movable element 1440, a second conductive layer 1558 that shields a layer of the movable element 1440 from the electrostatic forces, and a second insulating layer 1556 that insulates the first conductive layer 1552 from the second conductive layer 1558. The second conductive layer 1558 is on an opposite side of the first conductive layer 1552 from the first insulating layer 1554. In embodiments in which the MEMS device 1400 is designed such that the movable element 1440 moves towards the substrate 20 upon actuation, the first insulating layer 1554 is above the first conductive layer 1552 (e.g., as illustrated in <figref idref="f0014">Figure 15B</figref>) because a lower surface of the deformable layer 1302 may contact the second actuation electrode 902 when the MEMS device 1400 is in the actuated state, and the second conductive layer 1558 is below the first conductive layer 1552 because the reflective element 1314 is at least partially shielded from the electrostatic forces by the second conductive layer 1558. In embodiments in which the MEMS device 1400 is designed such that the movable element 1440 moves away from the substrate 20 upon actuation, the first insulating layer 1554 is below the first conductive layer 1552 because an upper surface of the reflective element 1314 may contact the second actuation electrode 902 when the MEMS device 1400 is in the actuated state, and the second conductive layer 1558 is above the first conductive layer 1552 because the deformable layer 1302 is at least partially shielded from the electrostatic forces by the second conductive layer 1558. In certain such embodiments, the dimensions (e.g., thickness) of the second actuation electrode 902, comprising the layers 1552, 1554, 1556, 1558, is rigid enough that the second actuation electrode 902 substantially does not deform. Other multi-layer stacks are also possible. For example, the second actuation electrode 902 may further comprise a third insulating layer on a side of the second conductive layer 1558 opposite the first conductive layer 1552 to provide insulation to inhibit shorts between the second actuation electrode 902 and other portions of the movable element 1440.

0132An actuation electrode 902 between the deformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314 allows configuration of the MEMS device 1400 such that a portion of the movable element 1440 contacts the actuation electrode 902 (i.e., the actuation electrode 902 acts as the stop for movement of the movable element 1440 rather than the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 or a lower surface of the insulating layer 144a). The interface where the portion of the movable element 1440 contacts the actuation electrode 902 can be advantageously adapted to reduce stiction without impacting optical performance because it is not in the optical path. For example, the surface topography of the insulating layer 1554 may be roughened to reduce the number of contact points or anti-stiction layer may be formed on the actuation electrode 902. For another example, the surface topography of an upper surface of the reflective element 1314 or a lower surface of the deformable layer 1302 may be roughened to reduce the number of contact points or an anti-stiction layer may be formed on the upper surface of the reflective element 1314 or the lower surface of the deformable layer 1302.

0133Electrostatic forces are due to electrical potential differences. In embodiments in which the movable element 1440 comprises an insulating connecting element (not shown), the potential of the reflective element 1314 can be about zero when the potential of the deformable layer 1302 is not zero. In certain such embodiments, the electrostatic forces acting on the deformable layer 1302 in response to voltages applied to the actuation electrode 902 may selectively be larger than the electrostatic forces acting on the reflective element 1314 in response to voltages applied to the actuation electrode 902. Thus, the movable element 1440 may be configured to actuate towards the substrate 20 in response to voltages applied to the second actuation electrode 902. Moreover, the area of a capacitor (e.g., between the second actuation electrode 902 and deformable layer 1302) can be advantageously small, thereby taking less time to discharge than large capacitors (e.g., between reflective elements and actuation electrodes in the optical path), which can decrease response time. However, in embodiments in which the reflective element 1314 is electrically insulated from the deformable layer 1302 or other structures, the reflective element 1314 may become charged, thereby creating an electrostatic force itself. In some embodiments, the reflective element 1314 is coated (e.g., with plastic) to selectively dissipate electrostatic discharge.

0134When voltages are applied to the second actuation electrode 902, electrostatic forces act on the movable element 1440. In response, the deformable layer 1302 flexes towards the second actuation electrode 902 if the attractive forces on the deformable layer 1302 are greater than the attractive forces on the reflective element 1314. The reflective element 1314 is mechanically coupled to the deformable layer 1302 such that, as the deformable layer 1302 moves towards the second actuation electrode 902, the reflective element 1314 moves a corresponding distance relative to and towards the substrate 20. A stationary portion of the MEMS device 1400 acts as a stop for movement of the movable element 1440.

0135In certain embodiments (e.g., embodiments in which a lower surface of the deformable layer 1302 contacts the second actuation electrode 902), the actuation electrode 902 comprises the stationary portion (e.g., as illustrated in <figref idref="f0013">Figure 14B</figref>). In certain such embodiments, an insulating layer 106 is optional because the movable element 1440 does not contact the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20. In certain embodiments described above in which the MEMS device comprises an actuation electrode 104 in the optical path and an insulating layer 106, and in which the mirror 14 contacts the top surface of the insulating layer 106 in the actuated state, the area of contact includes a dielectric layer. To avoid trapping charges in the dielectric layer, the polarity of the voltages applied to the actuation electrode 104 and the mirror 14 can be alternately switched. Switching polarity dissipates charge, but consumes power. However, in certain embodiments in which the MEMS device 1400 does not comprise the insulating layer 106 and in which the reflective surface 1301 of the reflective element 1314 contacts the top surface 1306 of the first reflective layer 104 in the actuated state, the contact is advantageously free of an electric field. As such, the voltages applied to the second actuation electrode 902 and the movable element 1440 may remain the same, which advantageously saves power.

0136In some embodiments, an insulating layer 1554 insulates the movable element 1440 from the second actuation electrode 902. In some embodiments, an insulating layer formed on a lower surface of the deformable layer 1302 (not shown) insulates the movable element 1440 from the second actuation electrode 902. In certain alternative embodiments, the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 comprises the stationary portion. In some embodiments, an insulating layer 106 insulates the movable element 1440 from the first reflective layer 104.

0137The movable element 1440 is responsive to voltages applied to the actuation electrode 142 by moving generally in a first direction, as described above. In embodiments in which the actuation electrode 142 provides the forces to move the movable element 1440 away from the substrate 20, the second actuation electrode 902 is configured such that the movable element 1440 moves towards the substrate 20 when voltages are applied to the second actuation electrode 902 (e.g., by positioning the second actuation electrode 902 closer to the deformable element 1302 than the reflective element 1314, by shielding the reflective element 1314 with a conductive layer 1558, etc.).

0138The second actuation electrode 902 preferably comprises a non-transparent conductive material, for example for the electrical properties described above. The second actuation electrode 902 is positioned above the reflective surface 1301 of the reflective element 1314 such that the second actuation electrode 902 is not in the optical path of the MEMS device 1400, so it may comprise a non-transparent conductive material. As such, the MEMS device 1400 is capable of fast response times and low power consumption.

0139In certain embodiments, a MEMS device comprises an actuation electrode 902 between the deformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314 and a second actuation electrode. The movable element is responsive to voltages applied to the actuation electrode 902 between the deformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314 by moving generally in a first direction, as described above. The movable element is further responsive to voltages applied to the second actuation electrode by moving generally in a second direction that is substantially opposite the first direction. The MEMS device is thus capable of stably producing at least three colors: a first color in the relaxed state, a second color in the actuated state in the first direction, and a third color in the actuated state in the second direction. In some embodiments, the actuation electrode 142 above the movable element 1440 may be characterized as the "second" actuation electrode (e.g., as illustrated in <figref idref="f0013">Figures 14A-14C</figref>).

0140<figref idref="f0015">Figure 16A</figref> illustrates a MEMS device 1600 comprising a movable element 1640 over a substrate 20. The movable element 1640 comprises a deformable layer 1302 and a reflective element 1314 having a reflective surface 1301. The MEMS device 1600 further comprises an actuation electrode 902 between the deformable layer 1302 and the reflective element 1314, and the optical stack 20 comprises a second actuation electrode 102. In <figref idref="f0015">Figure 16A</figref>, the second actuation electrode 102 is formed over the substrate 20.

0141<figref idref="f0015">Figure 16B</figref> illustrates an embodiment of the MEMS device 1600 of <figref idref="f0015">Figure 16A</figref> in a first actuated state. The first portion of the movable element 1640 acted on by the first attractive force comprises the deformable layer 1302 and the second portion of the movable element 1640 acted on by the second attractive force comprises the reflective element 1314. The movable element 1640 is responsive to the first and second attractive forces by moving generally in the first direction, for example in a direction generally perpendicular to the substrate 20 as illustrated by arrows 1620. In certain embodiments, an upper surface of the reflective element 1314 contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1600 (e.g., the actuation electrode 902) in the actuated state (e.g., as illustrated in <figref idref="f0015">Figure 16B</figref>). In certain alternative embodiments, an upper surface of the deformable layer 1302 contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1600 (e.g., a layer above the movable element 1640).

0142<figref idref="f0015">Figure 16C</figref> illustrates an embodiment of the MEMS device 1600 of <figref idref="f0015">Figure 16A</figref> in a second actuated state. When voltages are applied to the second actuation electrode 102, electrostatic forces act on the movable element 1440. In response, the deformable layer 1302 towards the second actuation electrode 102. The reflective element 1314 is mechanically coupled to the deformable layer 1302 such that, as the deformable layer 1302 moves towards the second actuation electrode 102, the reflective element 1314 moves a corresponding distance relative to and towards the second actuation electrode 102. The movable element 1640 is responsive to an attractive force produced by applying voltages to the second actuation electrode 102 by moving in a direction towards the second actuation electrode 102, as indicated by arrows 1622. In certain embodiments, the reflective element 1314 contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1600 (e.g., the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20) in the actuated state (e.g., as illustrated in <figref idref="f0015">Figure 16C</figref>). In certain alternative embodiments, a lower surface of the deformable layer 1302 contacts a stationary portion of the MEMS device 1600 (e.g., the actuation electrode 902). In certain such embodiments, the reflective element 1314 does not contact the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 (e.g., the top surface 1306 of the insulating layer 106 or the top surface 1306 of the first reflective layer 104) in the actuated state. In embodiments in which the actuation electrode 902 provides the forces to move the movable element 1640 away from the substrate 20, the second actuation electrode 102 is configured such that the movable element 1640 moves towards the substrate 20 when voltages are applied to the second actuation electrode 102.

0143Other embodiments of MEMS devices comprising first and second actuation electrodes are also possible. For example, a MEMS device may comprise a first actuation electrode 142 above a movable element comprising a deformable layer 1302 and a reflective element 1314 and a second actuation electrode 102 below the movable element. Additionally, while not depicted in <figref idref="f0013">Figures 14A</figref>, <figref idref="f0014">15A</figref>, and <figref idref="f0015">16A</figref>, certain portions of the MEMS devices may be in electrical communication with certain other portions. For example, the reflective element 1314 and/or the deformable layer 1302 may be in electrical communication with the first reflective layer 104.

0144<figref idref="f0016 f0017 f0018">Figures 17A-17H</figref> illustrate an example embodiment of a method of manufacturing the MEMS device 1300 of <figref idref="f0012">Figure 13A</figref>. The MEMS structure 1700 illustrated in <figref idref="f0016">Figure 17A</figref> includes a substrate 20 (e.g., comprising glass, plastic), a first reflective layer 104 (e.g., comprising chromium), an optional insulating layer 106 (e.g., comprising SiO₂ and/or Al₂O₃), a first sacrificial layer 1702, and a reflective element 1314 (e.g., comprising aluminum) having a reflective surface 1301. As discussed above, the insulating layer 106 may be omitted in some embodiments. In some embodiments, the thickness of the first sacrificial layer 1702 influences the color of the MEMS device 1300 in the relaxed state.

0145In certain embodiments, one or more apertures 1704 are formed through the reflective element 1314 to allow for easier etching of the first sacrificial layer 1702. The amount of distance between the reflective element 1314 and the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 is proportional to the amount of fluid (e.g., air) in the cavity between the reflective element 1314 and the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20. In certain embodiments of the MEMS device 1300 in which the reflective element 1314 does not contact the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20, the distance between the reflective element 1314 and the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 becomes very small. For example, the distance is typically small in embodiments that can produce high reflectivity broadband white (e.g., because the distance is less than about 100 Å). Certain such small distances can affect the flow of the fluid (e.g., air) around the reflective element 914 during movement (e.g., relaxation) because some fluid may not have sufficient space to move around the sides of the reflective element 1314 and may instead may become compressed between the reflective element 1314 and the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20. In certain embodiments, the apertures 1704 in the reflective element 1314 provide an additional path for the fluid occupying the cavity between the reflective element 1314 and the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 to flow from below the reflective element 1314 to above the reflective element 1314 during movement (e.g., relaxation). Thus, the at least one aperture 1704 can increase the speed of the MEMS device 1300. However, the portion of the reflective element 1314 comprising the at least one aperture 1704 is not reflective, which reduces the fill factor of the MEMS device 1300.

0146In embodiments in which the reflective element 1314 does not contact the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20, the reflective surface 1301 of the reflective element 1314 is preferably substantially smooth and flat, for example to increase color gamut. In some embodiments, the reflective surface 1301 is made substantially smooth and flat by forming the reflective element 1314 on a smooth and flat first sacrificial layer 1702 (e.g., comprising photoresist) or by polishing the first sacrificial layer 1702 (e.g., comprising molybdenum) prior to formation of the reflective element 1314. The reflective surface 1301 of the reflective element 1314 may also be smooth and flat in embodiments in which the reflective element 1314 contacts the top surface 1306 of the substrate 20 (e.g., the top surface 1306 of a 100 nm thick insulating layer 106 to create black or the top surface 1306 of the first reflective layer 104 to create broadband white), although the possible effects of stiction are considered in such embodiments (e.g., by adding insulating or conductive bumps).

0147In certain embodiments, a black mask 1310 is formed by using the first sacrificial layer 1702 as the first layer 1308 and the material for the reflective element 1314 as the reflective layer 1309. In certain alternative embodiments, the black mask 1310 is formed using one or more other layers. In some embodiments, the MEMS device does not comprise a black mask.

0148<figref idref="f0016">Figure 17B</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1700 of <figref idref="f0016">Figure 17A</figref> after a second sacrificial layer 1706 (e.g., comprising molybdenum) has been formed over the reflective element 1314. The second sacrificial layer 1706 spaces the reflective element 1314 from the deformable layer 1302. The second sacrificial layer 1706 may comprise the same material as the first sacrificial layer 1702 or a different material than the first sacrificial layer 1702. In some embodiments, formation of the second sacrificial layer 1706 forms an aperture 1710 through the second sacrificial layer 1706. In embodiments in which an insulating or other layer has been formed on an upper surface of the reflective element 1314, the aperture 1710 may allow removal of such layers without additional patterning steps.

0149<figref idref="f0016">Figure 17C</figref> illustrates the MEMS device 1700 of <figref idref="f0016">Figure 17B</figref> after a support structure 18 has been formed. In embodiments comprising a black mask 1310, the support structure 18 may be formed around the black mask 1310 to insulate the conductive layer 1309. In certain alternative embodiments, the support structure 18 is formed before the second sacrificial layer 1706.

0150<figref idref="f0017">Figure 17D</figref> illustrates the MEMS device 1700 of <figref idref="f0016">Figure 17C</figref> after a connecting element 1319 has been formed over the second sacrificial layer 1706 and at least partially in the aperture 1710. The connecting element 1319 is mechanically coupled to the reflective element 1314 through the aperture 1710. In certain alternative embodiments, the support structure 18 is formed after the connecting element 1319.

0151<figref idref="f0017">Figure 17E</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1700 of <figref idref="f0017">Figure 17D</figref> after a deformable layer 1302 (e.g., comprising nickel) has been formed over the support structure 18, the connecting element 1319, and the second sacrificial layer 1706. The deformable layer 1302 is mechanically coupled to the reflective element 1314 by a connecting element 1318 via the connecting element 1319. In certain embodiments, one or more apertures 1303 are formed through the deformable layer 1302 to allow for easier etching of the second sacrificial layer 1706.

0152<figref idref="f0017">Figure 17F</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1700 of <figref idref="f0017">Figure 17E</figref> after a third sacrificial layer 1708 (e.g., comprising molybdenum) has been formed over the deformable layer 1302. The third sacrificial layer 1708 spaces the deformable layer 1302 from the actuation electrode 142. The third sacrificial layer 1708 may comprise the same material as one or both of the first and second sacrificial layers 1702, 1706 or a different material than one or both of the first and second sacrificial layers 1702, 1706. In certain embodiments, the thicknesses of the second sacrificial layer 1706 and the third sacrificial layer 1708 influence the color of the MEMS device 1300 in the actuated state.

0153<figref idref="f0018">Figure 17G</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1700 of <figref idref="f0017">Figure 17F</figref> after formation of a support structure 18a over the deformable layer 1302, an insulating layer 144a over the third sacrificial layer 1708, and an actuation electrode 142 over the insulating layer 144a. In some alternative embodiments, the support structure 18a is formed before the third sacrificial layer 1708. In certain embodiments, the support structure 18a is formed while forming the insulating layer 144a (e.g., by depositing SiO₂ and patterning the SiO₂). In some embodiments, the actuation electrode 142 and the insulating layer 144a comprise at least one aperture 1316 to allow for easier etching of the third sacrificial layer 1708.

0154<figref idref="f0018">Figure 17H</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1700 of <figref idref="f0018">Figure 17G</figref> after the first, second, and third sacrificial layers 1702, 1706, 1708 have been removed, resulting in the MEMS device 1300 of <figref idref="f0012">Figure 13A</figref>. In embodiments in which the sacrificial layers 1702, 1706, 1708 each comprise molybdenum, they may be removed, for example, by etching with XeF₂. In embodiments in which a sacrificial layer comprises photoresist, it may be removed, for example, by ashing (e.g., by etching with O₂ and/or H₂O). The apertures 1704 illustrated in <figref idref="f0016">Figure 17A</figref> help the etchant to remove the first sacrificial layer 1702 under the reflective element 1314. The apertures 1303 illustrated in <figref idref="f0017">Figure 17E</figref> help the etchant to remove the second sacrificial layer 1706 under the deformable layer 1302. The apertures 1316 illustrated in <figref idref="f0018">Figure 17G</figref> help the etchant to remove the third sacrificial layer 1708 under the actuation electrode 142. Upon removal of the sacrificial layers, the movable element 1340 can move in response to voltages applied to the actuation electrode 142.

0155<figref idref="f0019 f0020 f0021">Figures 18A-18G</figref> illustrate an example embodiment of a method of manufacturing the MEMS device 1400 of <figref idref="f0013">Figure 14A</figref>. <figref idref="f0019">Figure 18A</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1700 of <figref idref="f0016">Figure 17B</figref> after the formation of a second actuation electrode 902 over the second sacrificial layer 1706. As described above, the second actuation electrode 902 may comprise a multi-layer stack. In such embodiments, formation of the second actuation electrode 902 may comprise a series of patterning steps (e.g., for each layer of the multi-layer stack, deposition, mask formation, etch, and mask removal) or a single patterning step comprising multiple etches (e.g., deposition of each layer of the multi-layer stack, mask formation, etch of each layer of the multi-layer stack, mask removal). Other sequences are also possible (e.g., deposition of each layer of the multi-layer stack, mask formation, etch of the top layer of the multi-layer stack, and use one or more upper layers as a mask for one or more lower layers). The thicknesses of the layers of the multi-layer stack may vary, although the resulting second actuation electrode 902 is preferably rigid enough that it does not substantially deform.

0156In embodiments in which the movable element 1440 is configured to move towards the substrate 20 upon application of voltages to the second actuation electrode 902, an insulating layer 1554 may be formed on the top of the conductive portion 1552 of the second actuation electrode 902 where contact is made with a lower surface of the deformable layer 1302 (e.g., as illustrated in <figref idref="f0014">Figures 15A and 15B</figref>). In certain such embodiments, the top surface of the second actuation electrode 902 may be roughened to reduce the number of contact points in order to decrease stiction with the deformable layer 1302. Other layers (e.g., an anti-stiction layer) may be also be formed on the top of the second actuation electrode 902.

0157<figref idref="f0019">Figure 18B</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1800 of <figref idref="f0019">Figure 18A</figref> after a third sacrificial layer 1808 (e.g., comprising molybdenum) has been formed over the second actuation electrode 902. The third sacrificial layer 1808 spaces the second actuation electrode 902 from the deformable layer 1302. The third sacrificial layer 1808 may comprise the same material as one or both of the first and second sacrificial layers 1702, 1706 or a different material than one or both of the first and second sacrificial layers 1702, 1706. In some embodiments, formation of the third sacrificial layer 1808 forms an aperture 1810 through the third sacrificial layer 1808. In embodiments in which an insulating or other layer has been formed on an upper surface of the reflective element 1314, the aperture 1810 may allow removal of such layers without additional patterning steps.

0158<figref idref="f0019">Figure 18C</figref> illustrates the MEMS device 1800 of <figref idref="f0019">Figure 18B</figref> after a support structure 18 has been formed. A portion of the second actuation electrode 902 is preferably exposed such that the actuation electrode 902 may be mechanically coupled to the support structure 18. In certain embodiments, the support structure 18 comprises one or more layers of the second actuation electrode 902 (e.g., to allow for electrical routing).

0159<figref idref="f0020">Figure 18D</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1800 of <figref idref="f0019">Figure 18C</figref> after a deformable layer 1302 (e.g., comprising nickel) has been formed over the support structure 18 and the third sacrificial layer 1808. The deformable layer 1302 is mechanically coupled to the reflective element 1314 by a connecting element 1418. In certain embodiments, a connecting element may be formed between the connecting element 1418 and the reflective element 1314.

0160<figref idref="f0020">Figure 18E</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1800 of <figref idref="f0020">Figure 18D</figref> after a fourth sacrificial layer 1812 (e.g., comprising molybdenum) has been formed over the deformable layer 1302. The fourth sacrificial layer 1812 spaces the deformable layer 1302 from the actuation electrode 142. The fourth sacrificial layer 1812 may comprise the same material as one or more of the first, second, and third sacrificial layers 1702, 1706, 1808 or a different material than one or more of the first, second, and third sacrificial layers 1702, 1706, 1808.

0161<figref idref="f0021">Figure 18F</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1800 of <figref idref="f0020">Figure 18E</figref> after formation of a support structure 18a over the deformable layer 1302, an insulating layer 144a over the fourth sacrificial layer 1812, and an actuation electrode 142 over the insulating layer 144a. In some alternative embodiments, the support structure 18a is formed before the third sacrificial layer 1808. In some embodiments, the support structure 18a is formed while forming the insulating layer 144a (e.g., by depositing SiO₂ and patterning the SiO₂). In some embodiments, the actuation electrode 142 and the insulating layer 144a comprise at least one aperture 1316 to allow for easier etching of the fourth sacrificial layer 1812.

0162<figref idref="f0021">Figure 18G</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1800 of <figref idref="f0021">Figure 18F</figref> after the first, second, third, and fourth sacrificial layers 1702, 1706, 1808, 1812 have been removed, resulting in the MEMS device 1400 of <figref idref="f0013">Figure 14A</figref>. Upon removal of the sacrificial layers, the movable element 1440 can move in response to voltages applied to the actuation electrode 142 and the second actuation electrode 902.

0163<figref idref="f0022 f0023">Figures 19A-19D</figref> illustrate an example embodiment of a method of manufacturing the MEMS device 1600 of <figref idref="f0015">Figure 16A</figref>. <figref idref="f0022">Figure 19A</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1800 of <figref idref="f0019">Figure 18A</figref> after a support structure 18 has been formed, although an aperture 1710 has not been formed in the second sacrificial layer 1706.

0164In embodiments in which the movable element 1640 is configured to move away from the substrate 20 upon application of voltages to the actuation electrode 902, an insulating layer 1554 may be formed on the bottom of the conductive portion 1552 of the actuation electrode 902 where contact is made with an upper surface of the reflective element 914. In certain such embodiments, the bottom surface of the actuation electrode 902 may be roughened to reduce the number of contact points in order to decrease stiction with the reflective element 914. Other layers (e.g., an anti-stiction layer) may be also be formed on the bottom of the actuation electrode 902.

0165<figref idref="f0022">Figure 19B</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1900 of <figref idref="f0022">Figure 19A</figref> after a third sacrificial layer 1808 (e.g., comprising molybdenum) has been formed over the actuation electrode 902. The third sacrificial layer 1808 spaces the second actuation electrode 902 from the deformable layer 1302. The third sacrificial layer 1808 may comprise the same material as one or both of the first and second sacrificial layers 1702, 1706 or a different material than one or both of the first and second sacrificial layers 1702, 1706. In some embodiments, formation of the third sacrificial layer 1808 forms an aperture 1810 through the second and third sacrificial layer 1706, 1808. In embodiments in which an insulating or other layer has been formed on an upper surface of the reflective element 1314, the aperture 1810 may allow removal of such layers without additional patterning steps. In some alternative embodiments, the support structure 18a is formed before the third sacrificial layer 1808.

0166<figref idref="f0022">Figure 19C</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1900 of <figref idref="f0022">Figure 19C</figref> after a deformable layer 1302 (e.g., comprising nickel) has been formed over the support structure 18 and the third sacrificial layer 1808. The deformable layer 1302 is mechanically coupled to the reflective element 1314 by a connecting element 1418.

0167<figref idref="f0023">Figure 19D</figref> illustrates the MEMS structure 1900 of <figref idref="f0022">Figure 19C</figref> after the first, second, and third sacrificial layers 1702, 1706, 1808 have been removed, resulting in the MEMS device 1600 of <figref idref="f0015">Figure 16A</figref>. Upon removal of the sacrificial layers, the movable element 1640 can move in response to voltages applied to the actuation electrode 902 and the second actuation electrode 102.

0168While the above detailed description has shown, described, and pointed out novel features of the invention as applied to various embodiments, it will be understood that various omissions, substitutions, and changes in the form and details of the device or process illustrated may be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit of the invention. As will be recognized, the present invention may be embodied within a form that does not provide all of the features and benefits set forth herein, as some features may be used or practiced separately from others. The scope of the invention is indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description. All changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be embraced within their scope.