Device and method of use for detection and characterization of pathogens and biological materials

Description of equivalent WO 03101278 A2

DEVICE AND METHOD OF USE FOR DETECTION

AND CHARACTERIZATION OF PATHOGENS

AND BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S)

[001] This application claims benefit from prior U.S. Application Serial

No. 09/519,271, filed March 7, 2000 and U.S. Application Serial No. 09/574,519, fϊled May l8, 2000.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [002] The present invention relates to the detection and characterization of pathogens, viruses, and other biological materials.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[003] Pathogens constitute a critical problem for human, animal and plant health. Pathogens may cause infections that result in a variety of human illnesses and can lead to a large number of deaths. Such pathogens may include viruses, bacteria, prions, fungi, molds, eukaryotic microbes and parasites of many types. Moreover, pathogens infect agriculturally important plant and animal species, resulting in economic hardship. Detection and identification of pathogens in relevant materials (e.g., water, air, blood, tissues, organs, etc.) is essential to minimize the transfer and spread of infections. Furthermore, quick identification may aid in devising effective treatment strategies. [004] One class of pathogens is viruses. Viruses are used here as an example and not intended to limit the scope of the invention in any way. Viral infections extol a great morbidity and mortality among the human population.

Many of these infections result from undetected viruses in waters, foods and air and are promulgated by an ever-increasing interconnection of societies. Detection and identification in medically-important materials such as blood, blood derivatives, tissues and organs is critical to minimize potentials for transfer and spread within hospitals and clinics and to the staff of these centers. [005] Several popular methods for the detection and identification of viruses and pathogens exist. These generally fall into three categories: A) Infectivity and infectivity reduction assays; B) Serology assays employing antibody detection to determine whether an individual has been exposed; and C) Direct virology assays in which antibodies are used to detect the presence of an antigen in the sample or nucleic acid-based assays in which elements of the viral genome are detected. Infectivity-based assays are seldom used in diagnostics yet, both cell culture and animal-based amplification of virus in_a sample may be necessary for many of the current diagnostic procedures. The use of animals in infectivity assays is costly, time consuming and subject to ethical dispute. Serodiagnosis still exists in many hospitals principally because there are no good alternatives for some infections. Serology is largely performed to determine antibody levels and to estimate the probability for infection. Antibody based tests are popular, but are usually limited to a battery of individual tests in a macroscopic format (e.g., Enzyme Linked ImmunoSorbant Assay, or ELISA). Standard microbiological approaches to detect anthrax and other bacterial pathogens involve growth of the agent on nutrient agar and visual identification after various staining procedures. Carbon source utilization testing in various media identifies and differentiates among closely related isolates. Viral pathogens are usually identified after their administration, infection and amplification in animals, particularly embryonated eggs, mice or cell culture. This is the basic microbial identification scheme practiced today. While precise in their verification of pathogen identity, these procedures are very slow.

[006] False-positives and false-negatives, particularly in cases where there is known cross reaction with antigens produced by other infections, are of major importance. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests are extremely sensitive and are usually employed in cases where there is prior reason to suspect the presence of a particular pathogen, such as following a positive test for HIV antigens. PCR methods, however, are relatively costly and time consuming. Furthermore, PCR tests are of a relatively limited applicability because of the requirement of enzyme activity and because of the frequency of false positives.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [007] The invention described herein is an affinity capture substrate, or sensor, that can be read by an atomic force microscope (AFM) or another type of scanning probe microscope (SPM) for a simple, rapid, sensitive and high throughput method for detection of pathogens, biological materials, viruses, etc.

This method can be applied to detect the target material in a target sample, including whole viruses, viral proteins and viral nucleic acids as well as to distinguish between strains of similar pathogens and biomaterials. Additionally, fluorescence or other methods commonly practiced for detection of biological binding events can be employed when desired.

[008] A method of detecting a target pathogen, comprising the steps of providing a substrate with a surface, depositing a patterned gold layer on the surface, depositing a deposition material on the surface, the deposition material capable of interacting with the target pathogen, and exposing the deposition material to a target sample which can contain the target pathogen and detecting resultant molecular interaction events between the deposition material and the target pathogen by imaging the surface with an atomic force microscope. [009] An apparatus for the detection of a vaccinia virus, comprising a gold layer deposited on a substrate, an C(x) alkane linker covalently attached to the gold layer, protein A/G tethered to the surface through the alkane linker, and anti-vaccinia antibody deposited on the surface in a domain such that a portion of the deposited antibody retains activity.

[010] A method of detecting a target pathogen, comprising the steps of providing a substrate with a surface, depositing a deposition material on the surface, the deposition material capable of interacting with the target pathogen, exposing the deposition material to a target sample which can contain the target pathogen and detecting resultant molecular interaction events between the deposition material and a target pathogen.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[011] FIG. 1 is an illustration of the AFM detection method.

[012] FIG. 2a is a graphical representation of a chip with a deposition material thereon and an AFM scan of the same. [013] FIG. 2b is a graphical representation of a chip_with a deposition material on the surface that has a target material attached and an AFM scan of the same.

[014] FIG. 3 is a graphical representation of a chip with two different deposition materials placed onto two different deposition domains. [015] FIG. 4a is a graphical representation of a chip with a deposition material on the surface and a control surface before and after attachment of a target material.

[016] FIG. 4b is another graphical representation of the chip of FIG. 4a.

[017] FIG. 4c is a representation of an AFM scan of the chip of FIG. 4a. [018] FIG. 5a illustrates the representative layers of a chip where a deposition material is attached by passive adsorption.

[019] FIG. 5b illustrates the representative layers of a chip where a deposition material is attached by active immobilization.

[020] FIG. 6a is a perspective view of a chip of the present invention with deposition material deposited thereon.

[021] FIG. 6b is a perspective view of a chip of the present invention after being exposed to a target sample containing a target material.

[022] FIG. 6c is a perspective view of the chip of FIG. 6b after washing. [023] FIG. 7a is an AFM scan of a chip of the present invention after deposition of a deposition material.

[024] FIG. 7b is a scan of the chip of FIG. 7a after exposing the chip to a target material. [025] FIG. 7c is a scan of a chip of the present invention after exposing the chip to a control.

[026] FIG. 8 is a graph of the number of target material particles bound to a chip surface versus exposure time for various concentrations of target material. DETAILED DESCRIPTION _ _

[027] Definitions

[028] The following are some definitions that may be helpful in understanding the description of the present invention. These are intended as general definitions and are put forth for a better understanding of the below description but should in no way limit the scope of the present invention.

[029] As used herein the term "pathogen" is used to mean any sort of viral, bacterial, fungal, prion, microbial or other material that can be detected using the teachings of the present invention. The term "pathogen" as used herein can be natural biological agents or artificial materials. Pathogens may include, for example, but not limited to, viruses, eukaryotic microbes, bacteria, fungi, parasites and prions. In particular, pathogens can be a canine parvovirus of the parvoviridae family or a vaccinia virus of the poxviridae family. [030] The term "target material" is the pathogen that is to be detected.

[031] The term "target sample" is a substance that is being tested to determine whether the target material is contained therein. These target samples can be natural or man-made substances. Alternatively the target sample may be a biologically produced product or an artificially made product. The target samples may be a solution, gas, or other medium. [032] The term "deposition material" or "deposited material" is the material deposited on the chip for which the target material has some known affinity, such as a binding agent. The deposition material can be deposited in a deposition domain, otherwise known as an affinity domain. The deposition material and the target material can undergo a non-specific binding event, such as, but not limited to, non-specific electrostatic or hydrophobic interactions, or a specific molecular interaction event, such as covalent or ionic attachment. Such deposition materials can include, but are not limited to antibodies, proteins, peptides, nucleic acids, peptide aptamers, or nucleic acid aptamers. In the below described embodiments, the deposited materials are antibodies to known viral pathogens. Antibodies are proteins that bind specifically to a target. [033] The term "chip" as used in the present invention includes a substrate that has a surface. The "chip" may or may not include the deposition material deposited thereon. Afterwards, the chip is exposed to the target sample to detect the target material.

[034] The present example illustrates the detection of viruses as the target material. The deposition material is the corresponding antibody. The antibody is a naturally occurring or synthetic protein that binds specifically to the target. In the present examples, Canine parvovirus (CPV) and vaccinia virus were detected.

[035] CPV belongs to the Parvoviridae family of viruses and is among the smallest viruses known. Parvoviruses are among simplest eukaryotic viruses and were only discovered in the 1960's. Parvoviral particles are icosahedral, 18- 26 nm in diameter and consist of protein (50%) and DNA (50%). The virions are not enveloped and the nucleocapsid confers considerable stability to the particles.

There are three capsid proteins, VP1, VP2 and VP3. Infectious virions of CPV contain 60 protein subunits, predominantly VP2.

[036] Vaccinia virus belongs to the poxvirus family and is among the largest viruses known. The vaccinia virus is an analog of smallpox, a designated biowarfare material. Furthermore, the vaccinia viruses are the largest of the DNA viruses affecting humans. The vaccinia virus is enveloped; slightly pleomorphic; ovoid, or brick-shaped. The viral particles are 140-260 nm in diameter and around 220-450 nm long. The viral particle is composed of an external coat containing lipid and tubular or globular protein structures enclosing one or two lateral bodies and a core, which contains the genome. Nucleocapsids are brick- shaped to ovoid. The core is usually biconcave with two lateral bodies. [037] To form a chip that comports with the teachings of the present invention, a substrate must first be prepared. Substrates were prepared using #1 glass cover slips (Fisher Scientific) that were cut into 7 mm X-7 mm squares and cleaned thoroughly for 30 min in ethanol using an ultrasonic bath. The glass substrates can be stored in ethanol until ready for use. The glass substrates were then coated with a thin layer (~3 nm) of chromium at 0.1 nm/s followed by the deposition of 20 nm gold at 0.2 nm/sec using an EBC 2000 (South Bay Technologies). The surface was patterned by placing a copper electron microscopy grid (400 mesh, hole size 100 um, bar size 15 um) (Electron Microscopy Sciences) on the glass during the coating process forming 100 um² gold pads on the glass surface. A slot grid (200 x 600 um) or a single hole grid (600 nm) can alternatively be used to pattern the surface. In preliminary studies, it has been observed that antibodies bind tenaciously to bare (clean) gold surfaces and retain some level of biological activity. The virus particles can also bind to gold and create a background problem.

[038] Passive adsorption was utilized to attach protein G to the gold surface to keep the non-specific binding of the virus particles to a minimum. Protein G is utilized as a layer over the surface because protein G presents four binding sites and orients the antibodies. Protein G is a naturally occurring protein that binds tightly to the Fc region of antibodies, in particular, IgG. In addition, when an antibody is deposited on the protein G, each antibody will orient in a specific manner relative to the surface. Control of the manner in which the antibodies orient relative to the surface insures that more of the active antibody binding site is exposed and active. In one alternative embodiment for passive adsorption, another protein can be used, for example, protein A (similar to protein G) or a hybrid protein A/G, (a recombinant mixture of protein A and protein G that combines the binding characteristics of both). In other embodiments, the chip may utilize the deposited gold surface to bind the antibody to the surface in a nonspecific way. In still further embodiments, the gold surface can be covered with an alkanethiolate material so that the deposited antibody coupled to the surface in a very specific manner, e.g., chemically (see Example II below). [039] To deposit the protein G layer, the glass substrates with the freshly prepared gold pads are immersed in a protein G (Sigma) solution at lmg/ml in IX PBS (lOmM phosphate buffer, 137mM NaCl and 1.37mM KC1) at room temperature for 30 minutes. Protein G is passively absorbed onto the prepared gold surface forming a uniform protein surface over the gold coated glass substrates. The substrate was then removed from the protein solution, washed with filtered distilled water, blown dry with argon, and stored at 4° C until antibody deposition.

[040] Antibodies can be deposited on the surface using a microjet device similar to the inkjet used in a inkjet printer. The microjet apparatus and method uses an aerosol microdroplet to create domains of the antibody on the surface. In the present embodiment, a single microjet, with a 30 um nozzle, and a Microjet III controller (MicroFab Technologies, Inc., Texas) was used. The microjet was mounted on custom-built computer controlled stage with translation along the X, Y and Z axes. Deposition domains of anti-viral antibodies on the order of few tens of microns were created in the protein G surface.

[041] The microjet method offers the advantage of extensive field testing and previous utilization in commercial applications involving genome arrays. The microjet uses a piezoelectric pump for precise delivery of fluids in the nanoliter to picoliter range. The microjet can consistently make arrays of antibodies with spot sizes in the 30-80 um diameter range separated by 20 um. Using spot sizes of 50 um and inter spot distance of 20 um, production of a 2 X 2 array in a 120 X 120 um area can be achieved. The AFM scan range is approximately 120 um and therefore can interrogate all four spots in a single AFM scan field.

[042] Subsequent to antibody deposition, the substrates were re-hydrated by placing them in a high humidity environment for 30 minutes, such an environment may be greater than 50% more preferably about 90%. Exposing the chip to high humidity and re-hydrating the chip helps the antibody to bind to the protein G surface.

[043] Typical viral diameters may range from about 20-200 nm. It is not crucial for every antibody to retain biological activity, therefore, because the viral particles are significantly larger than a single antibody and will cover a field of several antibodies. A virus with a radius of 25 nm (roughly the size of the CPV) would cover an area of about 500 nm² when touching a surface with sufficient molecular flexibility to permit antibodies to gain access to 25% of the viral surface. The antigen binding site of an antibody covers a spatial envelope of approximately 2 nm x 5 nm, or 10 nm . Therefore, if only 20% of the antibodies on the surface were correctly oriented and biologically active, the viral particle would contact about 10 potential binding sites. Based on these considerations the present embodiment uses chemisorbed antibodies for the construction of the solid state viral detection and identification assay.

[044] The chip is then exposed to the target sample and tested for any molecular interaction events between the deposited material and the target material.

[045] As illustrated in FIG. 1, the present invention utilizes an atomic force microscope as the detection apparatus. In an AFM, the interactions between a sharp, micron-scale probe and a sample are monitored and regulated as the probe scans over the sample. Extremely fine control of the motion of the AFM probe is achieved using piezoelectric crystals. Thus, the AFM is capable of ~2 nm lateral resolution and <1 nm vertical resolution. This level of resolution gives the AFM the ability to detect changes in topography in the Angstrom range. The ability of AFM to detect height changes on the order of lnm has been utilized for the detection of antibody-antigen interaction; AFM has also been used to image nucleic acids, proteins, viruses, bacteria, live cells and other biological materials. The AFM can be operated in solution and is capable of identifying molecular binding events in near-real time. For a typical AFM immunoassay, the change in height is on the order of 1-3 nanometers (nm), providing a change in signal of 100%) (from 3 to 6 nanometers, for example). For viruses, this change is much greater, on the order of 30 to 300 nm, providing a signal to noise ratio of 10 to 100 fold.

[046] A Dimension 3000 series AFM (Digital Instruments/Neeco, Santa

Barbara, CA) equipped with a 120-um tube scanner was utilized for the large- scale topography measurements of the chip. All images were captured in Tapping mode using silicon ultralevers (Park Instruments) under ambient conditions. Images were flattened and low pass filtered for analysis.

[047] Although the present embodiment utilizes the AFM as a label-free detection device, alternative methods including, but not limited to, surface plasmon resonance, mass spectrometry, electronic signature, optical methods, or other techniques, can be incorporated into the present invention without changing the nature and scope thereof.

[048] EXAMPLE I [049] With reference to FIGS. 2a-b, 4a-c, 5a, 6a-c, and 7a-c, CPN is detected by constructing a chip with anti-canine parvovirus monoclonal antibody deposited thereon, exposing the chip to a target sample, and then reading the chip using the AFM to determine whether CPV is bound to the chip surface. [050] The viral particles were prepared at a stock concentration of 0.3 mg/ml. Purified monoclonal antibody which recognizes the CPV capsid, A3B10 (0.9mg/ml) was utilized. In another test run, purified anti-canine parvovirus monoclonal antibody (2mg/ml) was obtained from a separate source (Custom Monoclonal International, California) with no observable change in results.

[051] A chip with a protein G coated surface was used for the deposition of antibodies against CPV at specific regions. The domains were formed using the above described microjet method. The antibodies of the present embodiment were diluted to O.lmg/ml in 1 X PBS before being deposited onto the surface using the microjet. The microjet was back- loaded with a syringe, and the antiviral antibodies were deposited on the surface with spot sizes in the range of 40 to 80 um. After all the antibodies spots were deposited, the chips were incubated in a humid environment for 30 minutes at room temperature to allow the antibodies to bind to^' the protein G surface. The chips were then washed with distilled water, blown dry with Argon and stored at 4° C until used.

[052] After the desired surface was formed on the chip, the chip was washed with distilled water and imaged to insure the surface was clean and smooth with no particulate matter thereon. Such an image is seen in FIG. 7a and 6a. The present embodiment utilized incubation of the antibody with the chip to expose the deposition material to the target material. The chips were incubated with the target sample, in this case 200 μl of virus detection buffer (PBS containing 0.25 mM NaCl, and 0.2% tween-80) on a rocker platform at room temperature for 15 min. During the incubation with CPV, the virus binds not only to the specific domain on the chip with CPV antibodies but also binds non- specifically to other regions on the chip. See FIG. 6b. Following incubation, the chips were washed three times in wash buffer (PBS containing 0.4 M NaCl and 0.2% T-80), each for 10 min. and once in water. This removes the non- specifically bound virus (FIG. 6c). Each chip was rinsed in water and blown dry in a stream of argon and then imaged by AFM. The chips may be incubated in 2 μl at high CPV concentrations (>100 ng/ml). At lower viral concentrations, the chips can be incubated in 200 μl of viruses in the target sample detection buffer for varying lengths of times on a rocker at room temperature. [053] Results [054] The above steps were used to test samples containing CPV at various concentrations. Afterwards, each chip was imaged and a particle count analysis was performed. Five sets of data were collected and plotted on a graph with the time on the X-axis and number of virus particles bound on the Y-axis. As seen in FIG. 8, as the concentration decreases the number of virus particles bound at any given time also decreases. Also, at any concentration the binding profile seems to follow a standard asymptotic curve as would be seen for a single step binding profile.

[055] The regions where the CPV antibodies were deposited had virus particles bound to it (>500 particles/5 um region). Areas where no antibodies were bound had very few virus particles bound to it (<10 particles/5um region).

The bindings where no CPV antibody was deposited can be attributed to nonspecific interactions between the virus with the protein G surface. See FIGS. 7a- c. [056] By performing a dilution series experiment with CPV, it was determined that virus particles can be detected at a concentration of 300 pg/ml.

The CPN genome is about 5 kilobases of single stranded DΝA. Assuming the molecular weight of the total DΝA is equal to that of the proteins, the molecular weight of the empty capsids would be about 2000 kDa., then 1 μg of the empty capsids would have about 3 X 10^u particles (stock concentration of 10¹⁴ particles/ml). These numbers indicate that viruses at a titer of 10⁷ particles/ml will provide a signal that is sufficient to report the presence of a particular virus. [057] More quantitative data analysis can be performed to relate the degree of observed binding to the sample concentration. For example, since the number of particles observed is a function of time, which is derivative of the sample concentration, it is possible to carry out a time course and determine an absolute sample concentration. The number of viruses bound at several time points, for example, 1, 5, 20 and 60 minutes, is measured. This can be compared to a standard curve for virus at known concentrations. Since the binding is driven by diffusion and therefore the number of binding events per unit time is a function of concentration, one can calculate the concentration of the unknown virus by fitting the binding vs. time curve to the standard curve obtained using the known concentrations of virus. [058] This data can be coupled with morphological analyses, local adhesion, elasticity, viscosity, or other analyses of which the AFM is capable, to create a multidimensional database of information which greatly enhances the identification and characterization of materials bound to the sensor surface. [059] FIGS. 7a-c represent AFM scans of a chip surface. The upper image shows a two dimensional rendering in which scale indicates topographical features. Lighter intensity features are taller than darker features (total Z range

300 nm) and the field size is 2 μ x 2 μ. The lower image is a 3D projection of the same data. FIG. 7b shows the surface after reaction with CPV. The lighter features correspond to the presence of bound CPV particles. [060] An example image of the virus binding to the microarray using AFM is illustrated in FIGS. 2a-b. Thus, when no sample is present, the deflection of the probe is due to the presence of the capture probe (Control). When sample is bound to the capture probe, the increased height of the deflection is due to the bound, large molecular weight particle sitting on top of the capture probe and is clearly detected (Positive). This analysis allows for quantification of particles bound to the chip by integrating the number of capture probes per spot bound to target particles.

[061] As illustrated in FIGS 6a-c, each antibody specific for a unique virus can be spotted on a distinct domain. When the entire chip surface is exposed to the virus, viral particles will bind strongly to the domain with its specific antibodies but will also non-specifically bind weakly to other domains. See FIG. 6b. After washing the chip surface, most of the weak, non-specific binding of the antigen is removed and remaining surface binding of the antigen is specific to the domain with its antibody. See FIG. 6c. [062] In the present invention, the results of binding can be checked by utilizing a control. A control is effectuated by exposing the virus to a chip, which does not have a binding affinity to the target material. In the present embodiment, the chip for detecting TGEV was exposed to CPV. FIG. 7a shows the chip surface as detected by AFM with no analyte added (control). FIG. 7c shows a chip against Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus (TGEV), reacted with CPV, which should not bind to the anti-TGEV antibody on the chip (non-specific binding). In this case, very little non-specific binding occurs, as reflected by the absence of raised features (viral particles). Such a rendering was also performed with antibodies against CDV (Canine Distemper Virus) with similar results. (Purified Monoclonal Anti distemper virus antibody (0.1 mg/ml) was obtained

(Biodesign International, Maine)). [063]

[064] EXAMPLE II

[065] Anti-vaccinia and anti-adenovirus (control) antibodies were obtained from Biodesign. Vaccinia virus strain WR (American Type Culture

Collection (ATCC) 1354) was grown in HeLa S3 (ATCC CCL-2.2) cells maintained on RPMI 1640 supplemented with 7% v/v fetal bovine serum and penicillin, streptomycin and fungizone. Near confluent S3 cells in Blake bottles were infected at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 0.2. Cells were collected when detachment became apparent in about 3 days. Virus was purified from frozen and thawed cells by successive cycles of sedimentation velocity and equilibrium density centrifugation. Stocks of purified virus were titered by end- point dilution assays and stored at -80C. The virus had a stock concentration of 10⁷pfu/ml. The purified rabbit anti-vaccinia (B65101R lot 8304600) and goat anti adenovirus hexon (B65101G, lot 4A01901) antibodies were divided into aliquots and stored at -20 C until use.

[066] To construct the vaccinia chips, the process of active immobilization to adhere anti-vaccinia antibodies to the chip surface was utilized instead of the passive adsoφtion to a protein layer as described in Example I above. In contrast, few adenovirus particles bind to the vaccinia chip demonstrating the specificity of vaccinia chip. Further characterization of the vaccinia chip showed that the binding of vaccinia to the chip was linear with time for the first 12 hours with a maximum of 200 particles attached in a 900 μ area viewed by AFM.

[067] The anti-vaccinia binding agent can be tethered to the surface by first placing an alkanethiolate monolayer over the gold. The anti-vaccinia virus would then be reacted with a -COOH group on the exposed portion of the alkanethiolate. In other embodiments, the binding agent can be tethered with a succinimide group or a NH₂ group.

[068] The virus retains its typical brick-like moφhology. The virus may retain some or all of its infectivity as the placement of the washed and dried chip onto a HeLa S3 monolayer resulted in infection from which infectious vaccinia virus was obtained. [069] The anti-adenovirus antibody in the heterologous experiment did exhibit a few bound virions. The ratio of homologous to heterologous signal in several experiments using these antibodies is about one log. Typically 3-8 vaccinia particles were detected in a 900 μ field using anti-adenovirus. [070] For actively immobilized antibody attachment to chip surfaces, freshly prepared gold surfaces, which were patterned through a slot grid or a single-hole grid, were immersed overnight at room temperature in a 0.5mm ethanolic solution of 16-mercaptohexadecanoic acid. The surfaces were rinsed in ethanol and activated by incubating in l-Ethyl-3-(3-

Dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC) (10 mg/ml in 100 mM (2-(N- Moφholino)ethanesulfonic acid) (MES) buffer pH 4.8) at room temperature for 2 hours. Each chip was rinsed in PBS and blown dry in a stream of dry argon. The central gold pattern (formed by the slot grid) were covered with 1 μl of the antibodies (0.1 mg/ml in PBS) and incubated at room temperature for 2 hours. The chips were then rinsed in PBS and the un-reacted chip surface was blocked by incubating in 10 mM methylamine in PBS for 30 minutes. The chips were washed with water, blown dry and stored at 4 C.

[071] From an assay that contained 10⁵ infectious doses per ml and an estimated particle number of 10⁶ based upon TEM the assay was linear with time for the first 12 hours with a maximum of 200 particles attached jn aj)00 μ viewed by AFM.

[072] Binding was a function of concentration. Increasing the concentration by 30 fold resulted in a 30-fold increment in virus numbers observed!

[073] Alternative Embodiments

[074] In one alternative embodiment, larger spots can be used in conjunction with a mechanism for rapid translation of the sample under the scanning probe. In this embodiment, spot sizes of 60-100 μ diameter can be positioned a few tens of microns apart in the array. The AFM would then scan the spots in a known order, relying on accurate translation of the spots to the interrogation field. This operation may be readily accomplished using a conventional high resolution translation stage. Throughput would not be compromised because faster scan rates (e.g., 3 Hz vs. 1 Hz) and lower resolution (e.g. 256 vs. 512 lines per scan) data could be employed to offset the additional time required to physically translate the stage without introducing intolerable degradation of data.

[075] As may be appreciated, the invention can be applied to detection and characterization of a broad range of biological materials, such as, but not limited to, other viruses, bacteria, bacterial spores, prions, pathogenic microbes such as fungus, parasites, mold, and pollen spores.

[076] The information and examples described herein are for illustrative puφoses and are not meant to exclude any derivations or alternative methods that are within the conceptual context of the invention. It is contemplated that various deviations can be made to this embodiment without deviating from the scope of the present invention. Accordingly, it is intended that the scope of the present invention be dictated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description of this embodiment.